THE PORTRAIT OF AHMED SHAWQI

(A Modern Egyptian Muslim Arabic Poet 1868-1932)

Dr. Z. I. OSENI

 The clash between the technologically advanced West and the culturally decadent Arab lands at the close of the 13th century C.E. brought in its wake radical changes in Egypt and other Arab countries. This clash was, at the outset, military. In his bid to fight the British in all fronts Napoleon Bonaparte of France invaded Egypt in 1798. Though his stay in Egypt was short-lived, it served as a fillip to cultural renaissance in Arab Lands. It dawned on the Arabs that for centuries they had been in a state of torpidity, and that the flag of learning and enlightenment had been snatched away from them by the West.

As a reaction to this reawakening there were internal changes in the area as well as attempts to imitate the West. The Muslim majority looked inwards and concluded that they were backward because they were not practicing Islam the way it ought to be practiced. The new environment produced pan-Islamic scholars like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh, to name only two, whose revolutionary impact on Modern Muslims and their attitude to modernization is great[1].

The changes also produced literary scholars and poets who were bent on ridding Arabic literature of the rigidity and decadence with which it had been afflicted for centuries since the fall of the Abbīsid Empire in 1258. Such scholars include Nīsif al-Yīzijḍ (1800-1871),

Ahmad Faris al-Shidyīq (1804-1887), Butrus al-Bustani (1819-83) Abdullīhḍ al Nadim (1844-1896), Ibrahim al-Muwaylihḍ (1845-1904) and his son Muhammad al-Muwaylihḍ (1868-1930), Marun al-Naqqash (1817-1855), Mahmud Sami al-Barudi (1839-1904), Hafiz Ibrahim (1871-1932) and Ahmad Shawqi.

This paper is essentially a study of the last mentioned personality, namely, Ahmad Shawqi. It is divided into four sections. The first one dwells on the life of the poet while the second section covers his literary works. These include his diwan (anthology) called al-Shawqiyyat, his poetic plays and his prose works. The third section treats the poet’s attitude to religion, particularly Islam. The last section is the conclusion. Notes and references as well as an appendix containing the Arabic original of quoted extracts are given after the conclusion.

It is hoped that the article will throw some light on Ahmad Shawqi the African Arab Poet, his literary activities and his miheu. It is also hoped that it will help students of Arabic literature, literary historians and critics to understand more about the personage called Shawqi and his place in modern Arabic literature.

 

Ahmad Shawqi’s Life

Ahmad Shawqi is a well known modern Arabic poet among the neo-classicists who were bent on reviving the cherished traits of classical poetry after half a millennium of decadence (inhitat) and rigidity (Jumud) in Arabic poetry.[2] Born in 1868 of fairly wealthy parents of mixed Arab, Turkish, Circassian and Greek origins, he was brought up in the modern secular schools of Egypt in addition to his Qur’anic training. After his secondary education in Egypt, he was sent to Europe by the Khedive Tawfiq,’ ruler of Egypt (1879-92) to study law and literature. The poet was to spend two years in Montpellier and two years in Paris. On the day of his departure from Cairo, the Khedive gave him one hundred pounds and promised to pay him a sum of sixteen pounds monthly. He warned the Paris bound budding poet not to worry his parents whenever he needed money and that he was ready to take full responsibility of all his financial needs.[3] This undoubtedly had a great impact on the mind of Shawqi. Little wonder then that he showered his encomiums upon the Khedive and his successor, Abbīs Hilmi (reigned 1892-1914) whose attitude towards the poet was not less favourable.

When the poet returned to Egypt in 1891, he was appointed to a high office in the court and soon became the favourite bard of the Khedive Abbas Hilmi. As M.M. Badawi puts it:[4]

“He composed panegyrical poems on official occasion such as the anniversary of Abbas’s accession to the throne and expressed the Khedive’s official poetry in his poems praising the Ottoman Caliph or criticizing British policy in Egypt.”

In September 1894, Ahmad Shawqi was delegated to represent Egypt in the conference of Orientalists held in Geneva[5]. During the conference, the poet recited an elegant poem captioned “Kibar al-hawadith fi wadi al-Nil” (Great Events in the Nile valley), in such a brilliant manner that won him the hearts of his audience[6]. Thus much of the poet’s time “was consumed by his office at the court which he occupied for over twenty years, and which, although conferred prestige and power”[7] upon him as ‘shair al-Umara’ (poet of the princes) in Egypt, also cost him some of his freedom. Nevertheless, Shawqi tried at the same time to compose a multiplicity of poems which were outside the scope of his official functions.

When the first World War broke out in 1914, the British government prevented the Khedive, Abbas from entering Egypt. He was deposed in his absence while on a visit to the Ottoman Caliph in Istanbul. The action was due to the khedive’s known solidarity with the Ottoman government which was in alliance with Germany, Britain’s deadly foe[8]. Sultan Hasayn Kamil (1914-17) was appointed in his place. The British promptly annexed Egypt and declared it a protectorate.

Ahmad Shawqi’s attachment to the Khedival court and his sympathy for the Ottoman Caliphate were no secret. He could not pretend to be neutral, for his vituperative attacks on the British in his much publicized poetry were clear evidence of his stand. As a security measure, the British wanted to exile him to Malta in 1915, but some state dignitaries interceded for him; he was then given the option to choose where he would like to be exiled to.[9] He chose Barcelona in Spain, and was promptly sent there in the company of his family. He was allowed to return to his home country towards the end of 1919.[10]

In Spain the poet’s virtuosity was enhanced. He developed great interest in Spanish Arabic poetry, particularly that of Ibn Zaydun. He composed many poems on the past glory of the Arabs in the Iberian Peninsula and gave vent to his deep nostalgia for Egypt in meditative and highly emotional poetry.[11]

At the end of the war, the poet returned to Egypt. At this time he was no longer the partly restricted poet of the court. He became more and more attracted by the nationalist aspirations of his people. He, like Hafiz Ibrahim, became one of the mouth-pieces of Egyptian nationalists more especially in the 1919 insurrection by the youths against British imperialism.[12] Thus it was evident that Shawqi’s exile to Spain was a blessing in disguise. He learnt much and perhaps, discovered his natural talents more than ever before, and strove vigorously to attain the title of Amir al-Shu^cara (the prince of poets). “Why should he not strive to attain such a coveted title?” one may ask. Was he not known as Shair al-Umara (the poet of princes) right from his youthful days as a poet laureate at the Khedival court? Have the Arabs not been saying that Kalam al-muluk muluk al-Kalam (the words of kings are the kings of words), and that adat al-sadat Sadat al-adat (the habits of masters are the masters of habits)?[13] This second phase of the poet’s life was also noted for the writing of his poetic plays, the only exception being Ali Bayk al-Kabir (1893).[14]

The poet was married to a young lady from a well-to-do family. She brought a lot of wealth to the matrimonial home from her father. This further augmented his comfort and stability. He had three children by her; a girl, Aminah, and two boys whom he named Ali and Husayn respectively.[15]

The poetic life of Shawqi’s rose to its apogee in 1927 when a conference was held in Egypt by literary scholars from all over the Arab world, and the title of Amir al-Shuara’ was conferred upon him. Long and impressive speeches were made to show how unparalleled the poet’s position was in the art of Arabic poetry.[16] It was on that occasion that Hafiz Ibrahim, another talented Egyptian poet (1871-1932) described Shawqi thus:

“O Prince of rhymes, I’ve come to pay (you) homage and these are

The groups from the East who joined me in paying (you) homage”.[17]

Shawqi continued to enjoy an unmitigated flow of poetic inspiration and the adoration of Egyptians and other Arabs until his death in October 14^th, 1932. Funeral citations were made in the Royal Opera House under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and a group of literary dignitaries. Many scholars from all over the Arab world were invited to the ceremony and the Egyptian monarch, King Fu’ad, was represented at the ceremony.[18]

 

SHAWQI’S LITERARY WORKS

The poet’s literary productions are many and varied. They include his al-Shawqiyyat (an anthology in four volumes), a number of poetic works on drama, an historical piece in verse and many prose works. Below is a brief introduction:

1. The Shawqiyyat:

The poet published the first volume of his poetry captioned al- Shawqiyyat in 1898.[19] His poems, like his contemporaries’, generally appeared first in the newspapers, magazines and journals of the time such as

al-Ahram, al-Mu ‘ayyad, al-Liwa, al-Majallat al-Misriyyah, Ukaz, and al-Zuhur.[20] It was much later that his selected works were published in four volumes called al‑Shawqiyyat.

In the new edition of volume I of al-Shawqiyyat (1925) which was introduced by Dr. Muhammad Husayn Haykal, the most spectacular poems in this collection of sixty-one poems are Kibar al-hawadith fi wadi al-Nil (Important Events in the Nile Valley), Sada al-harb (the Echo of War), and Nahj al-Burdah (in the manner of the Mantle) which is a eulogy of the Prophet Muhammad meant to be read during the Mawlid al- Nabi celebrations.[21]

Treated in this part also are socio-political and historical themes such as poems on Mustafa Kamil’s victory over the Greek, a lamentation of the abolition of the Caliphate by Mustafa Kamal of Turkey, a halt at the graveside of Napoleon Bonaparte, and a poem entitled al-Andalus al-Jadidah (The New Spain).

The second volume of the Diwan (1930) contains one hundred and seven poems arranged under three headings: (a) al-Wasf (descriptive poems), (b) al-Nasib (elegiac reminiscence at the beloved one’s deserted encampments), and (c) Mutafarriqat (miscellaneous odes).[22] Poems in each section are arranged alphabetically. Conspicuous among the poems in this part are “Ayat al-asr fi sama’ Misr” (the sign of the Time in the sky of Egypt), “al-Busfur Ka-annaka tara-hu” (The Bosphorus as if you are seeing it), “al-Siniyyat al-Andalusiyyah” (The Andalusian Ode in S-Rhyme), and “Khada ^‘uha” (They Deceived Her). Paregyrical poems have been omitted from this part, but the nasib, as has been mentioned, remains. It is here that one finds Shawqi’s famous elegant verse which summarizes a typical love story:

“A look, then a smile and greeting Followed by talking, dating, and then meeting”.[23]

This volume of the Shawqiyyat also contains “Marra’ al-Lurd Kitshinar” (The Fall of Lord Kitchener), “al-Nasr al-Misri” (The Egyptian Eagle), and Saqr Quraysh (the Hawk of Quraysh) which is a story about Abd al-Rahman al-Dakhil in strophic Andalusian verse.[24]

In 1936, the third volume of the poet’s anthology was published; this contains fifty-nine elegiac poems. It was befitting tribute to Ahmad Shawqi that his elegies on notable personalities both in the Arab and Western worlds were published in one volume four years after his demise. These elegies follow the traditional pattern, and the bard’s neo-classicist proclivities are glaringly noticeable here as in may other genres of Arabic poetry he treated. Some of the elegies are on people like Hafiz Ibrahim, Said Zaghlul, Mustafa Kamil, Muhammad Abduh, Qasim Amin, Jurji Zaydan, Victor Hugo, Tolstoy, Verdi, Tharwat Pasha, Yaqub Sarruf, Sultan Husayn Kamil, al-Manfaluti, Butrus Ghali, and the poet’s own mother who died when he was away in Spain.[25]

The fourth volume appeared in 1943. The 129 poems in this volume are classified under the following headings:

(a)        Mutafarriqat fi al-siyasah wa al-tarikh wa al-ijtima (Miscellaneous poems on political, historical and social issues);

(b)        Al-Khususiyyat (personal notes);

(c)        Al-Hakayah (Fables);[26]

(d)        Diwan al-Atfal (Children’s Anthology);

(e)        Min Shir al-siba (Of childhood verses), and

(f)         Mahjubiyyat (Light-hearted poems on his good friend, Dr. Mahjub Thabit)[27]

In 1961, a scholar named Muhammad Sabri published two further volumes entitled “Al-Shawqiyyat al-Majhulah” (the Unknown Shawqiyyat), but the authorship of some of the poems in the book, according to Dr. M. M. Badawi, has not yet been established beyond all doubt.[28] Until the authenticity of the volume’s content is proved, by further research, let us be contented for now with the known shawqiyyat.

 

2.     Shawqi’s Other Poetical Works

Besides the Shawqiyyat, the poet published the following plays in verse:

(a)        Ali Baykaw ma hiya Dawlat al-Mamalik (1893), the revised version of which was published as `Ali Bayk al-Kabir (‘‘Ali Bey the Great) in 1932)

(b)           Masra Kilyubatrah (The Fall of Cleopatra), 1929,[29]

(c)        Qambiz (Cambyses), 1931.

(d)        Majnun Layla (1931) which is a dramatisation of the well-known desert romance of Qays narrated in al-Isbaharu’s Kitab al-Aghani.[30]

(e)        Antar (1932). This deals with the ancient Arabic romance of love and chivalry.

(f)         Al-Sittah Huda (a one-verse comedy about a contemporary Egyptian lady). This was published long after the poet’s death.

In addition to the above plays in poetic form, the poet wrote and published a historical work in verse. The book is captioned Duwal al-Arab Wa Uzama’ al-Islam (The Arab States and the Notable of Islam). This work saw the light of the day after the poet’s death.

 

3. Shawqi’s Prose Works

Ahmad Shawqi is known all over the Arab world as a poet who tried his hand at every imaginable poetic theme known in Arabic literature. In addition to his undying fame as a poet, he wrote the following five prose romances:

(a)           Adhra al-Hind (1897). This work introduces the reader to the ancient history of Egypt.

(b)          Ladiyas (1899). This romance is about the last of the Pharaohs of Egypt.

(c)           Shaytan Binta’ur (1899); this was published in al-Majallat al-Misriyyah.

(d)          Waraqat al-As (1904). This work has less rhyming prose than others. It treats ancient history as far back as the time of Sabur, the King of Persia.[31]

(e)           The poet also wrote an ornate work of rhyming prose entitled Aswaq al-Dhahab (the Markets of Gold). The book appeared in 1932. It contains articles in which the writer[32] expressed his views on topics like freedom, the nation, Suez Canal, the pyramids, death, the unknown soldier, etc. It also contains proverbs and aphorisms some of which are drawn from Shawqi’s personal experience.[33] The title of the book reminds one of al-Zamakhshari’s work Atwaq al- Dhahab (The Collars of Gold) which is a classical collection of proverbs written in the early part of twelfth century C. E.

(f)            He also wrote a play in prose captioned Amirat al-Andalus (The Princes of Andalusia), 1932. The events in the play are said to have happened in Spain & Morocco in the eleventh century C. E.[34]

III Islam in Shawqi’s Works.

Islam as a religion and way of life influenced the poet greatly in his literary works. He was learned in Islamic Studies such as the Qur’an, Sirah (the biography of the Prophet Muhammad) and the Hadith (the Traditions of the Prophet P.B.U.H.). Shawqi’s knowledge of these branches of Islamic Studies was not just a superficial one’. Rather his Shawqiyyat are replete with Islamic elements which portray his Islamic background. In the poems which are specifically devoted to the Prophet Muhammad, e.g. Nahj al-Burdah - a poem of 190 verses composed in 1910; Dhikr al-Mawlid (1911) which contains 99 verses; and al-Hamziyyat al-Nabawiyyah (1912) which contains 131 verses, the poet’s deep knowledge of the Sirah of the Prophet is indubitably established. In these works, Shawqi showered all imaginable praises upon the Prophet in a manner that equaled the renowned al-Busiri’s. Take for instance the following verses from Nahj al-Burdah:

The full moon is beneath you in beauty and honour

And the sea is below you in goodness and generosity;

The mountan’s heights become low when you measure yourself against it;

And whenever you compete with the bright stars you win.

The lion in its daring enterprise is below you in courage,

When you walk up to a man armed to the teeth.

The hearts of heroes and stalwarts yearn to you

Even when you cause them to bleed during the war.

5. God has indeed put His love and honour on the son of Aminah in all encounters.

Your face amidst dust is like the full moon of the night, shining whether covered or not;

A full moon rising at Badr: its light is comparable to the light of victory which illuminates the darkest of nights.

You’re mentioned in the Qur’an as a (lonely) orphan as a mark of respect

For the value of a hidden pearl is in its (lonely) uniqueness.

While God shared people’s sustenance amongst them

God you were given the choice of sustenance and shares.

10   If you say ‘No’ or ‘Yes’ about any matter,

God’s choice will be the ‘No’ or ‘Yes’ emanating from you.

Your brother, Jesus, raised a dead man to life

While you gave life to generations from decay.

Ignorance is death; if you’re given a miracle

Raise (people) from ignorance or from the tomb.[35]

In his humble conclusion of Nahj al-Burdah, Shawqi says:

If my sins are too enormous to forgive, I have hope

In God which put me under the best protector;

And I meet my request as the protector is dear to Him,

Who removes all anxieties and grief's in the two worlds.[36]

The poet believed very strongly in God and did not fail to express this unshakable belief in his poems[37] He also loved Islam very much and tried not to compromise his faith whatever be the situation. Hence he regarded Islam as the seal of religion thus:

“Those are the signs of the Criterion which God sent as light and by it guides whomsoever He wills.

The signs abrogated the way of the Prophets

And Apostles as light overshadows lesser lights.^”[38]

The poet was not, however, an Islamic fanatic; he composed poems to eulogize Jesus as a prophet of God. An example is:

“Jesus, your way is mercy and love,

Purity and peace in the universe.

You were neither a shedder of blood

Nor a man who looked down on the weak and orphans. “[39]

He attacked the followers of Jesus who were belligerent and oppressive, and reminded them that their ways were different from Jesus’ own. He says:

“Jesus and his disciples wash their hands of them;

Could the followers of the compassionate Jesus be harsh? They’re hostile to a religion, not to an empire;

Their pretension and complaint are false.”[40]

Thus Shawqi made sure that he did not overstep the bounds of Islam in his eulogy of Jesus. He pleased the Copts and the Christian Arabs as well as his Muslim brothers. Perhaps, his education in Europe and his contacts with many people from different climes and faiths contributed to this much liberal attitude in his consideration of Christianity.[41]

Nevertheless, the poet saw the Sultan of Turkey as the symbol of Islam and consequently eulogized the Ottoman Caliphs in Istanbul in a number of poems. Addressing a Caliph he says:

“You’re always the Refuge of Religion and the Guide

By whom we intimately move near to God”[42]

This explains why he was shocked to the marrow when Mustafa Kamal (Attaturk) abolished the Caliphate in 1924 in an attempt to modernize Turkey along European lines. Shawqi lamented the abolition passionately in a poem entitled Khilafat al-Islam.[43]

He composed beautiful lines on Salah (formal prayer), Zakah (poor-rate), and Siyam (fasting), and practised them with zeal in his life-time. In his Aswaq al-Dhahab he describes Salah as follows:

If it were not the head of acts of worship, it would have been regarded as a righteous religious act, an exercise of the body, purification of clothes, a means of baring the emotion, and (a pointer to) various good qualities on which young girls and boys should grow.[44]

The poet was generous and paid his Zakah and even exceeded the normal rate to express his gratitude to God for His grace and mercy.[45]

In spite of his religious disposition, one is not suggesting that Shawqi was a perfect Muslim. The poet used to drink wine and has a number of Bacchanalian verses in his Diwan.[46]

One finds it difficult to defend the poet on this issue, especially if one recognise the fact that he advised workers not to take alcohol.[47] This is the same poet who, despite his picturesque poem on pilgrimage to Mecca captioned Ila Arafat Allah (to God’s Arafat) in which he piously discussed the pilgrimage, and petitions God to have mercy on His servants, refused to perform the holy pilgrimage in 1911 when the Khedive asked him to accompany him in the holy journey. He never performed this obligatory duty in his life.[48] It is said that he dreaded riding on a camel and that_, this is why he did not follow the Khedive to Mecca.[49] One must emphasis the indefensibility of Shawqi’s act here. In view of the Khedive’s exalted position, no Hajj could be more comfortable to the poet than accompanying him to Mecca. He looked for excuses and failed to perform the Hajj but went to spend his summer holiday in Europe and Lebanon almost every year until his death in 1932.[50]

As a versatile artist, he frequented social gatherings, cinema and dance houses. But as he advanced in age, his appetite for these fleeting things decreased.[51] In his last days, he had dramatically cut down his hedonistic engagements. He contented himself with the study of Islamic religious books such as al- Ghazali’s and repented fervently for his past indulgences.[52]

 

CONCLUSION

To sum up, Ahmad Shawqi has proved through his poetic experimentation in Arabic that the language is capable of expressing almost everything under the sun appropriately. He used the classical language to express modern terms and this he did admirably.

He is known in modern Arabic literature as Amir al-Shuara, (the prince of poets) whose poetry is more comprehensive then any other poet’s - both past and present-as far as the Arabic language is concerned.[53] There is no doubt that in addition to his poetic virtuosity, his contact with some other cultures, particularly French and English, helped him in no small measure to widen his horizon and fertilise his ideas. A close look at the second section of this paper reveals his versatility in the poetic art though owing to space economy, it has not been possible to give elaborate illustrations of the various themes on which he composed. The ease with which he described modern inventions like the aeroplane in his poetry while using old Arabic idioms, for example, is fascinating.

Shawqi proved in his works that he was a threnodist, eulogist, didactic poet, social critic, outspoken politician, bucolic singer, bacchanalian bard, fabulist, writer of juvenile stories, play-wright, historian, and Islamic Scholar with a bias to the field of Sirah (biography of the Prophet Muhammad P.B.U.H.). Indeed his emergence as a poet marked the maturation of modern Arabic poetry, a phenomenon whose foundation was laid by literary figures liKe Nīsif al-Yaziji, Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq and al-Barudi in the early years of the renaissance of Arabic literature.

 

Notes and References