HISTORICAL REFERENCES
ODES

ODE 28
(and other poems)

ALI, HYDER, (with the honorific title) ‘TIGER OF GOD’.

Ali ibn Abu Talib was a cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, and the fourth Caliph. The first male to accept Islam, and the Prophet’s closest companion, he played a historic role in the Prophet’s campaigns, at the time of his migration, and in his Medinan period. During the short period of his Caliphate, which ended in his assassination (on January 27, 661), he was, in the Battle of the Camel, forced to resist the army of Talha, Zubair, and A’yesha (the Prophet’s wife), who sided with the supporters of the assassinated third Caliph, Osman - a party which demanded Ali to punish the murderers of Osman, or to hand them over (to the complainants). Ali had declared his inability to find the murderers. Masudi, an Islamic historian, has summed up Ali’s role and character in these words:

‘If the glorious name of being the first Muslim, a comrade of the Prophet in exile, his faithful companion in the struggle for the Faith, his intimate associate in life, and his kinsman; if a true knowledge of the spirit of his teachings and of the Book; if self-abnegation and the practice of justice; if honesty, purity, and love of truth, if a knowledge of law and science, constitute a claim to pre-eminence, then all must regard Ali as the foremost Muslim.’

ODE 12
(and other poems)

RUMI

Jalal-ud-Din Rumi (1207-1273), famous mystic, poet, and didactician, author of the Diwan (1244) named after Shams-i-Tabriz, who profoundly influenced him, and of the Mathnavi (c.1240-73) in six Books, consisting of fables, anecdotes, and moral instruction. Iqbal who regards Rumi as his spiritual guide, has very high praise for his work. Echoing the words of another admirer, Iqbal says: ‘He is the one who wrote the Quran in the Persian language. ‘(Asra-i-Khudi, page 15). Rumi’s style is homely, with a bold imagery drawn from everyday life, and an epigrammatic terseness in his short couplets-in contrast to the ornate lyricism of most of the other poets.

ODE 12
(and other poems)

RAZI

Fakhr-ud-Din al-Razi (1149-1209), theologian and philosopher, the first and one of the greatest writers of the new school, known to the Latin West as Rhazes, one of the great physicians of the Islamic world, author of one of the greatest commentaries on the Quran, Mafatih al-Ghayb, in six volumes (1179-89). His other writings include An Encyclopedia of the Sciences and a Manual on Metaphysics. He was born in Persia, travelled in Central Asia, and settled in Herat (in modem Afghanistan) under the protection of the Ghorid kings.

ODE 18

SOLOMON

Solomon son of King David by Bathsheba, succeeded his father as the third king of Israel, and ruled from c.972 B.C. until his death in 922 B.C. His alliances, especially with Egypt and the Phoenicians, and his military strength saved him from major wars and internal revolts. His fabulous wealth was the result of his use of the economic resources of his empire, and enabled him to embark on vast building projects, the most famous being the Temple of Jerusalem. He was an author and a patron of literature, but many of the writings attributed to him were not his work-for example, The ‘Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and The Song of Solomon. He had a legendary reputation for wisdom. His reign ended with resentment over heavy taxes and the religious syncretism which his marriages had fostered.

Of the many Quranic verses about Solomon, one refer-, to his genealogy:

‘....And Noah did We guide aforetime; and of his seed (We guided) David and Solomon and Job and Joseph and Moses and Aaron...’ (6:84)

The Quran also refers to Solomon’s judgement and knowledge (21:79 and 27:15), and his wealth (27:36),

ODE 16

HALLAJ

Abu Abdallah al Hussain bin Mansur al Hallaj, surnamed Abdul Mughis, (c.858-March 26, 922) one of the most famous martyrs in the history of Islam, a mystic who broke his early ties with Sufism; was born in Persia, travelled in the East, performed a haj, and started teaching doctrines which were considered heretical by the scholars, Sufis, traditionalists, and jurists of his time. The most memorable event of his life was his cry of ‘Anal Haq’ (‘I am the Truth’), which brought him charges of blasphemy and the sentence of death. He was mutilated and burnt to death. The manner of his execution gave rise to legends of a Christ-like regeneration.

ODE 16

PHARAOH

There are many references to Pharaoh in the Quran and in the Old Testament. (See the Note on Moses). Detailed accounts in the Quranic verses are in 7:103-137, 10:75-92, 40:28-44, and 44:17-33. The title Pharaoh. was given to the kings of ancient Egypt, who were believed to be divine, incarnations of the god Horus. At Thebes, in the Valley of the Kings, pyramids and tombs were built, to ensure the survival of the kings’ fame and influence. The term ‘pharaoh’ in common usage has come to mean ‘cruel, extremely arrogant’. Iqbal’s reference to the ‘Moses-like magic hand concealed’ is based on the following Quranic verses:

(Pharaoh) said: If thou comest with a token, then produce it, if thou art of those who speak the truth.

Then he flung down his staff and lo! it was a serpent manifest; And he drew forth his hand (from his bosom) arid lo! It was white for the beholders.’ (7:106-108)

ODE 33

TIMUR’S HERITAGE

Timur’s heritage is both cultural and political-the revival of artistic and intellectual life in the Fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Iran arid Central Asia, and an Empire which Timur (Tamburlaine) had divided between his two sons, Miran Shah (who died in 1407) and Shah Rukh. The last Timurid of Herat, Badi-uz-Zaman, was finally defeated by the armies of the Uzbek Muhammed Shaybani, in 1506. The Timurid ruler of Fatghana, Zahirud-Din Babur, survived the collapse of the dynasty, and became the first ruler of the Moghul Empire in India in 1526. (See the note on Tamburlaine).

ODE 43

NADIR SHAH

(October, 1688-June, 1747). His original name was Nadir Qoli Baig. He created an Iranian Empire from the Indus river to the Caucasus mountains, attacked the Ottoman Turks, and ascended the Iranian throne, with the title of Nadir Shah. Capturing several cities of the Moghul Empire (in February, 1739), he attacked the main Moghul armies in Karnal, entered Delhi, and ordered a massacre of the citizens as a retaliation against the death of three of his soldiers in a quarrel with some Delhi citizens. The massacre led to about 30,000 deaths. Nadir Shah relented only after an earnest appeal by Nizam-ul-Mulk. He returned to Iran with considerable loot, including the world-famous diamond, Koh-i-Noor, and Shah Jehan’s Peacock throne, (which was used by the late Shah at his coronation). Nadir Shah was assassinated by his own troops in Khorasan.

ODE 43

TAMBURLAINE

Born in 1336 in Kesh, Samarkand, he died on February 19, 1405. The name Timur Leng-Timur the Lame-was a title of contempt used by his Persian enemies. He Mastered the military techniques developed by Chengiz Khan, and began his rise as leader of a small nomadic band. By the 1360’s, with his conquering barbaric hordes, he extended his dominion over the land between the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers. During the course of three decades, he subdued each state from Mongolia to the Mediterranean. With deep-rooted nomadic instincts, he never took up a permanent abode. His court, and one or more- of his nine wives and concubines, travelled with him.

ODE 47

NIETZSCHE

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844-August 25, 1900), German philosopher, nihilist, a precursor of Existentialism, had a profound influence on Iqbal’s thought. (See the Introduction). In his first book, The Birth of Tragedy (1872), he introduces a distinction between the Apollian (or rational) and the Dionysian (or passionate) element in human nature. In his most famous work, Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-85), Nietzsche denounced Christianity and democracy as moralities of ‘the weak herd’, and formulated his idea of the Superman, who is driven by the ‘will to power’. He presented a more elaborate idea of the Superman in Beyond Good And Evil (1886) and On the Genealogy of Morals (1887). He became increasingly deranged in later years. A collection of his essays, The Will to Power (190 1) was published posthumously.

ODE 48

GHAZAL 1

Abu Hamid b. Muhammad al-Tusi (1058-1111), Suruamed Hujjat-ul-Islam, distinguished theologian, Jurist, mystic, and religious reformer. He wrote books on Islam Law, philosophy. logic, dogmatic theology. polemics, akl Sufism. He represented the first great reaction against the rationalistic systems of the philosophers. After refuting the philosophers’ thesis in his famous work, Tahafut-al-Falasifa, he did not attempt an alternative philosophical system. As the first great reformer of Sufism, he secured a place for it in the structure of Islamic orthodoxy.

ODE 48

DARIUS
(Dara in Persian)

Darius I (Darius the Great), king of Persia, was born in c.550 B.C. and ruled from 522 to 486 B.C. He is considered the restorer of the Persian Empire, which he reorganized into provinces called satrapies, introduced many reforms, created a cuneiform script for the old Persian language, and constructed a complex of palaces at Persepolis. His military campaigns include an invasion of the Balkans, Southern Russia (from where he retreated), and Greece (where he was defeated in the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C.). He named his son, Xerxes I as his successor.

ODE 48

ALEXANDER

Alexander III (356-323 B.C.), son of Philip II, was the king of Macedonia and the first king to be called ‘Great’. He was taught for a time by Aristotle. Succeeding to the throne after his father’s assassination in 336 B.C., He proved to be a great military genius, and conquered vast territories in three continents, which involved the destruction of some cities, and the suppression of some revolts. He destroyed the city of Thebes, defeated the Persian army under king Darius III at Issus, occupied Syria and Phonenica, and in Egypt, where he was accepted its pharaoh, he founded the city of Alexandria. In Libya, the oracle of Ammon (Zeus) declared him the son of god. Crossing the Eastern Desert and the Euphrates and

Tigris rivers, he finally defeated Darius III’s grand army at Guagamela in 331 B.C., occupied Babylon, the imperial capital, Susa, and Persepolis. After years of guerilla war in north-eastern Iran, he married a local chieftain’s daughter, Roxana, as a conciliatory gesture, in 327 B.C. Later the same year, he invaded the Punjab, and conquered most of it. He died at the age of 33.

ODE 53

‘NISAB’

Assets in gold, silver, and cash on which zakat (poor-due) is payable at the rate of 2 ½%.

ODE 56

ISMA’IL

Son of the prophet Abraham, and ancestor of the prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h.). He has been mentioned in the Qur’an in Verses 2:125-129, 6:86, 19:54-55, 21:85, and 37: 10 1 -111. For details about the prophet Muhammad’s genealogical history, see Ibn Is’haq’s Sirat Rasul-Allah, translated by A. Guillaume, Oxford University Press, Karachi, 1955, pages 3

ODE 56

HUSSAIN (or HUSAYN)

Grandson of the Prophet Muhammad and son of Ali ibn Abu Talib, noblest and greatest martyr in the history of Islam. He and all the male members of his family were brutally massacred in the Battle of Kerbala, with the exception of a sickly child, Zain-ul-Abidin. The battle resulted from Hussain’s refusal to take the oath of loyalty to Yazid, son of Mua’wiya, who had already been nominated as successor (in a direct breach of a contract with Hassan), and who succeeded Mua’wiya on his death in April, 680. When the Muslims of Kufa (Iraq) appealed to him for their liberation from the tyranny of Yazid - a depraved, treacherous, ferocious tyrant

Hussain felt it his duty to rcspond to the appeal. Reaching Iraq and finding no trace of the Kufan army, which had promised to meet him, he encamped, with his small band, at Kerbala, near the western bank of the Euphrates. Kerbala became the scene of the most ruthless massacre in ‘world history, In which Hussain, who fought with heroic courage to the last moment of his life, was subjected to unexampled ferocity and barbarism. He is remembered every year, in the month of Moharram, in a ritual of lamentation, by the Shia community throughout the world, as the eternal symbol of nobility, courage and martyrdom.

ODE 57

THE KHAYBER WAR

Iqbal’s admiration for Ali’s heroism in the Khayber war is based on the fact that he took a prominent part in this campaign (in March, 628) against the Jews of the Arabian Peninsula, who had betrayed the Prophet in the Battle of Uhad and had violated the covenant of peace concluded earlier. The Jews had strong fortifications at Khayber and fought desperately. The Prophet, after a few days of battle sent Abu Bakr with a contingent and a flag, but he could not conquer the fortress. Umar ibn al Khattab, sent on the following day, fared no better. Then the Prophet sent Ali ibn Abu Talib, who lost his armour in the battle, shielded himself with a large door, and fought until the fortress was stormed by his troops.

ODE 61

FARABI

Abu Nasr Muhammad b. Tarkhan b. Awzalagh (970-950), known as Alfarabius in medieval Latin texts, was one of the greatest Muslim philosophers, and became known as ‘the second teacher’, the first being Aristotle. He is believed to have written more than 100 books, on commentaries on Aristotle, logic, physics, metaphysics, ethics, politics, survey of sciences, etc. The Christian-Arabic-Aristotelian teaching of tenth century Baghdad seems to be the background of Farabi’s thought.

ODE 63

PERVIZ (KHUSROW), FARHAAD

According to the Arab Chronicle of Al Tabari and its Persian adaptation , Khusrow II Perviz of Persia built a palace for his wife, Shirin, called Kasr-i-Shirin (an edifice of which some remains still survive). Shirin wished to have a canal constructed, and Perviz asked Farhaad to undertake the project. That was the beginning of the star-crossed romance of Shirin and Farhaad. Nizami, in his work, Khusrow-wo-Shirin (completed in 1180), has described the consequences of this romance. Khusrow punished Farhaad by ordering him to cut a way- through Mount Bisutun, and to give up his association with Shirin. But finding that Shirin came back to see him, Perviz gave Farhaad the false news of Shirin’s death, at which Farhaad ended his life by hurling himself from the mountain-top.

MOSES

According to the Scriptures, the prophet Moses grew up at the Pharaoh’s court, and fled to Midian. He was the leader of the ancient Hebrews who brought them out of Egypt in the Exodus (c. 1250 B.C.)

The reference to Moses relates to the Quranic and Biblical accounts of his flight from the Pharaoh and his keeping of his father-in-law’s flock in Midian, where God spoke to him in a burning bush, and ordered him to lead Israel out of Egypt. For the reference to Moses and his magic hand in Pharaoh’s presence, see the note on Pharaoh. The Quranic Verse on which the reference is based, is as follows:

‘...(Moses) said: My Lord! Show me (Thy Self), that I may gaze upon Thee. He said: Thou wilt not see Me, but gaze upon the mountain! If it stand still in its place, then thou wilt see Me. And when his Lord revealed His glory to the mountain, He sent it crashing down. And Moses fell unconscious...’ (7:143)

Among the numerous Quranic references, detailed accounts of Moses are found in 2:51-61; 7:103-137; 10:75-92-,20:42 79-, 26,10-69; 28:4-21,31-42, 40:23-46; and 79:15-26. Accounts of the life of Moses are also to he found in the Books of Exodus through Deuteronomy in the Bible.

FIRDOWSI

(c.940-1020), one of the greatest Persian poets, author of the Shah-nama (Book of Kings), a contemporary and panegyrist of Mahmud Ghaznavi, who had promised to pay him one dinar for each couplet, but actually paid him only one dirham (a silver coin). Full of indignation, Firdowswi wrote a satire on his niggardliness, and is believed to have remarked: ‘What an alchemist is this king of ours! He transmutes gold into baser metal, instead of doing it the opposite way. It is possible that Firdowsi’s satirical observation in the Stanza is an oblique reference to Muhmud’s miserliness.

THE MOSQUE OF CORDOVA

The Great Mosque of Cordova (Qartaba in Arabic), also called La Mezquita, is one of the largest and most beautiful Islamic structures. It was built by Abd-ar-Rahman I in 784-786, enlarged by his successors, and completed by Abu Amir al Mansur in 976. It has a vast rectangle with a deep sanctuary divided into 19 aisles and 850 marble columns, which support 9 double-ticred arches. The mihrab is seven-sided, and is lined with marble and gold mosaics. The Mosque is located near Wad-al-Kabeer (The Great River)-a name which has been corrupted into Guadalquiver. The city of Cordova was made capital of Cordova province (in the Andalusian autonomous region of Southern Spain) by Abd-ar-Rahman 1, a member of the Umayyid family, in 756. Cordova excelled Baghdad in refinement, beauty, and magnificence; it became the largest, and probably the most cultured city in Europe.

GRANADA (Garnata in Arabic)

The city of Granada in Spain during the Muslim period was I famous for its architectural beauty and as a centre for the study of arts and sciences. One of its landmarks is the Alhamra, (a corrupted form of Madinat-ul-Hamra-the Red City), built by Ibn-ul-Ahmer, which has been described as ‘a fabric of the genii’, with its towers, citadels, palaces, colonnades, domes, ceilings gleaming with brilliant tints, halls, fountains, arabesques, and mosaics illuminated in many shades. Opposite the Alhamra is the famous Royal Villa, Al-Generaliffe (a corrupted form of the Arabic word, (Al-Jamaa-ul-Arif). The sovereigns of’ Granada rivalled the Caliphs of Cordova in their patronage of learning, and founded academics before the oldest European universities.

TARIQ

Tariq, the son of Ziad, one of the ablest lieutenants of the governor of Africa, landed at the place which bears his name Jabl-ut-Tariq (Gibralter) - on April 30, 711, with a small force of 7,000 men, and defeated the Goths in several engagements, against superior numbers. He then proceeded to Toledo, and with a force later augmented to 12,000, fought against king Roderick’s army of 100,000 men. The Gothic army was completely routed, and king Roderick himself, in his flight, was drowned in the river Guadalete. As a result of his military successes, in less than two years, the whole of Spain, as far as the Pyrenees, was in the hands of the Muslims.

GHAZNAVI

Mahmud Ghaznavi, Subuktigin’s son, conquered an extensive territory, and launched 17 campaigns in the Punjab. On his death his empire comprised the Punjab, parts of Sindh, some Hindu states in the valley of the Ganges, Northern Baluchistan and Afghanistan. (See the note on Firdowsi for his relationship with the poet).

BADR

The famous Battle of Badr was fought on March 15, 624, between the Muslims and the Quraysh, in which the small band of ill-equipped Muslims (305 in number, with 70 camels, which they had to ride by turns), defeated a much better equipped army of about 1,000 opponents, The decisive victory of the Muslims in this battle had far-reaching consequences. The loss of the cream of their forces deprived the Quraysh of their position of leadership in the country. The Muslim victory in this historic battle was the beginning of the supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula arid of a large Islamic empire, which ultimately led to the dominance of the Islamic civilization throughout the world for five centuries.

HUNAYN

The Battle of Hunayn was fought on February 1, 630, between the Muslims who had just conquered Mecca, and the tribes of Hawazin. The Muslims, with a well-equipped army of 12,000, were confident of victory, but the pre-dawn attack of the Hawazin at the canyon of Hunayn caught them unawares, and led to their panic, bordering on defeat. The turning-point of the battle was Al Abbas’ repeated call and the presence of the Prophet himself on the battleHeld. The panic-stricken Muslim armies regrouped themselves, and a- brave fight led to their decisive victory.

AVICENNA (Ibn Sina in Arabic)

(980-1037). His full name was Abu Ali al Hussain Ibn Sina. Philosopher, physician, and physicist, author of more than 100 writings in theology, metaphysics, astronomy and Philosophy His works translated in the West include his Philosophical Encyclopedia, in which he attempted to summaries of Aristotle and numerous works on medicine, which served as a of medical teaching in European universities for many centuries.