THE PHILOSOPHY OF ‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL: SOURCES AND EXPRESSION
IN
BÿNG-I-DARÿ

SECTION I
SOURCES OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF
‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL

These sources can be outlined as follows:

1. Ancient philosophers and mystics  )
2. Muslim philosophers and sëfâs   ) External sources
3. Original Islamic literature            )
4. Modern Western literature             )
5. Nightly Tahajjud prayers and         ) meditations, early dawn prayers, ) Internal sources supplications to God for guidance )

(1) Ancient Philosophers and Mystics

This is the period ending with the advent of Islam in the seventh century. The following four philosophies have existed during this period:

1. The Greek philosophy (6th. to 4th. centuries BC).

2. The Persian or Zoroastrian philosophy (7th century BC till the Muslim conquest of Ir«n in the middle of the 7th century C.E ). Its originator was Zoroaster.

3. The Chinese philosophy (5th. to 4th. centuries B.C.). The most famous philosopher or mystic of this philosophy was Confucius.

4. The Hindu philosophy, which started formally with the Vedas (ca. 500 B.C.) though the Aryans had arrived in India in the 3rd. Millennium B.C.

The Greek philosophy greatly influenced the Christian as well as the early Muslim thought. Its influence on the Christian thought was inevitable and direct because Greece had given protection and nurture to the early Christian saints and propagators of religion. Another reason was the unavailability of the original sermons and revelations of Sayyidina ¥s« (A.S) during the first two centuries or so of the Christian era. Its influence on the Muslim thought was due to the proximity of Greece to the Arabian Peninsula and indirectly due to the books of Christian and Jewish scholars which were based primarily on the remnants of the original Bible in the memory of the Christians on which the Greek philosophy had been super-imposed. The Persian, or Zoroastrian, philosophy influenced only the Ir«nian Muslim thinkers and that too only marginally. Similarly, there was only very slight influence of Hindu philosophy on the Muslim thinkers of the Indian subcontinent. In fact Islam had a great influence on Hindu thought, particularly in the 11th. to 14th. centuries. The Chinese philosophy had the least influence, if any.

For these reasons ‘All«mah Iqb«l concentrated on the Greek and Persian philosophies only. Another important reason was to make an effort to counteract the misleading effects of these philosophies on Muslim thought as stated by ‘All«mah Iqb«l himself:

(52) I have disclosed the secrets of qalandar
So the seminary's and monastery's thinking be free
(Appendix III, No. 25)

As we have mentioned in Chapter 2 and later in this chapter the philosophies of "Idealism" and "Realism" emanated from Greece and were the rudiments of "Pantheism" or Waédat al-Wujëd and atheism respectively of later times. Islamic thought is the middle course between these two extremes. It neither denies the reality of the existence of Matter or the Universe nor elevates it to elegance of eternity and deification. According to the Holy Qur’«n there is only one Entity i.e. God which is Eternal in its origin as well as the end and is the Creator, Organizer, Lord and Administrator of the Universe, both material and spiritual. The Holy Qur’«n states that:

God is the Creator of the Universe (2:29, 117; 6:73; 29:19-20);

This creation is not accidental or for sport (21:16-17);

This creation is in just proportions (39:5); and

This creation is not only purposeful but also for just ends (15:85; 16:3; 45:22; 46:3 and 51:56-58);

After the creation of the Universe God did not abdicate His authority and did not retire but continues to be in full command of His entire creation (2:255; 9:129;23:86-89; 40:15).

Some eminent leaders of the Greek thought are Parmenides (ca. 504-450 B.C.), Xenophenes (6th. century B.C.), Socrates (ca. 470-399 B.C.) and Plato (ca. 428-ca. 348 B.C.). As stated above Plato harmonized Greek philosophy and is considered to be the link between the Greek and the modern Western philosophers. Consequently, ‘All«mah Iqb«l concentrated his attention on Plato in preparing his critique of the Greek thought.

Both components of the Greek philosophy, viz. "Idealism" and "Realism" are in conflict with the Islamic thought. From purely pragmatic point of view also both are detrimental to the human race. "Idealism" does not believe in the Universe being real which denies all the creative potentiality of God as well as His Sovereignty. Human efforts in our affairs would be of no use because there is no guiding force ruling over the Universe which could make our efforts succeed or listen to our prayers. As stated earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 2 this concept is the rudiment of the concept of Waédat al-Wujëd from which the concepts of Determinism and Fatalism originated. Fatalism strikes at the very roots of human effort and cuts off nourishment from it by depriving man of the good hope from the Mercy and Benevolence of God. This is in direct opposition to the Holy Qur’«n, which clearly endows Man with free will, albeit limited, and Mercy and Benevolence from God. Fatalism not only degrades Man to a lifeless toy but also denies God His Eternal Sovereignty over the Universe and its affairs, including the affairs of Man. Islam's approach in this matter is the golden mean between the extremes of immutable Fatalism and the chaotic unbridled free will of the atheist. Man and his actions are certainly under the control of the Omniscient and Omni-potent God's Will. However, this Will is neither capricious nor immutable. Human effort, coupled with prayers and supplications to God can change the Will, (The Holy Qur’«n 10:99-100, notes 1480-1481 in Appendix III, No. 8; 30:5, note 3509 in Appendix III, No. 8; 81:27-29, note 5996 in Appendix III, No. 8; 82:6-7, note 6004 of Appendix III, No. 8). These doctrines led to the Muslim Ummah losing dynamism, the deleterious effects of which are clearly stated by Najla (1963) in the following citation:

"The decline of the internal creative power and expeditionary zeal of the Arab civilization was more devastating than the misfortunes and catastrophes that befell it from outside. The ardent desire for intellectual inquiry and the pride of performance which were characteristic of the early times were throttled by the strong pressure of religious dogmas and centralization. Freedom of thought was banished and conservatism reigned supreme. Unbridled search for Truth was branded as atheism and irreligiosity. The fearless and bold people of the earlier times were relegated to obscurity. The brain trust engaged itself in preparing the explanations and abstracts of well known subjects instead of using their intellect in discovering new avenues of knowledge."

(Appendix III, No. 45, cited in Appendix III, No. 35)

Thus Plato's philosophy of "Idealism", when adopted by Muslim thinkers created the concept of the ineptness of the human race to control its destiny which was considered to be pre-determined by the only Existing Being in the form of immutable destiny or Fate. With this belief human effort became redundant and useless. This led to the abandonment of dynamism which had made the Muslims "rulers of the moon and the Pleides" and reduced them to be Fatalists and stoics with monastic temperament. Centuries of this static life of the Muslim Ummah led to their declining preparedness which resulted in the destruction of the Khil«fah, the loss of Bukhara, Samarqand and Spain, the fall of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent, the collapse of the Uthmaniyah Khil«fah and of all the Muslim powers in North Africa and South East Asia. This degeneration continued till, by the time of ‘All«mah Iqb«l, the Muslim Ummah had been reduced to a mere existence which was entirely and completely at the mercy of the Western Powers. The painful reality is that the condition of the Muslim world has continued to be increasingly hopeless till now.

Under these conditions ‘All«mah Iqb«l warned the Muslims in his book, Asr«r-i-Khëdâ to refrain from Plato's philosophy (Appendix III, No. 22, in Section VII ).

(2) Muslim Philosophers and Sëfâs

‘All«mah Iqb«l studied, pondered over, evaluated and accepted or rejected, after critical examination, the works of almost all Muslim scholars of the philosopher as well as sëfâ class. His criteria for acceptance were concordance with the Holy Qur'«n and Hadâth literature and the influence of the thoughts on the welfare of the Muslim Ummah. Quddësâ (1970) has recorded detailed biographies of 32 such eminent personalities who influenced ‘All«mah Iqb«l or earned his appreciation and confidence. (Appendix III, No. 49). Ahmad (1987) has described the influence of three additional Muslim thinkers whose works influenced the ‘All«mah. These are Zakariy« al-R«zâ, Abë ‘Ali Sâna and Jam«l al-Dân Afgh«nâ (Appendix III, No 5). In addition, he also studied a large number of Persian and Urdu mystical poets and benefited from their works. Their biographies and influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l are described by Ri«z (1977) (Appendix III, No. 51). Many of these philosophers, sëfâs and poets have been referred to in Appendix I of this commentary, which gives their short biographies and summarizes their influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l. He has himself expressed his admiration for a number of eminent Muslim philosophers, sëfâs and poets. I have subjectively selected nine such personalities for inclusion here. I give below short accounts of their influence in chronological order:

1.ñaifër Ibn al-‘¥s« B«yazâd Bisè«mâ R.A.(777-874)- See Appendix I, No. 14. He is one of the most favorite sëfâs of ‘All«mah Iqb«l for whom he had very deep love and reverence. This was based on two attributes of Bist«mâ R.A., viz. faqr and Love of God. The latter attribute is also one of the prime movers of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's works the examples of which abound in all his works. I have commented on this subject at appropriate places in the commentary and again in this chapter under the topic "‘Aql O Dil". I give here one example of each:

Addressing God he says:

(53) The grandeur of Sanjar and Salâm is the manifestation of thy Majesty
The faqr of Junaid and B«yazâd is Thy unveiled Beauty
(Appendix III, No. 29)

Talking of audience with the Holy Prophet (S.A.W). he says:

(54) Of the highest reverence under the sky more gracious than ‘Arsh is this place
Junaid and B«yazâd approach in a trance at this place
(Appendix III, No. 33)

2. Junaid Baghd«dâ R.A. (ca. 820-910)- See Appendix I, No. 47). He is a well known Sëfâ and is ranked among the highest by very eminent sëfâs. ‘All«mah Iqb«l had very great reverence and love for him. His greatest contribution to the service of Islam was exposing of the ineptness of the Greek philosophy in solving Man's material as well as spiritual problems. Probably he is the first Muslim thinker who tried to free Islamic thought from the Greek thought. He is cited as saying, "Only that man can find the path of tasawwuf who has the Holy Our'«n in his right hand and the Hadâth of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) in his left, so that with the light of these two torches he can protect himself from doubt as well as bid‘ah ". ‘All«mah Iqb«l learnt this important lesson from him, of course in addition to others. He has often cited him in his works as having reached the climax of Faqr.

(55) The Grandeur of Sanjar and Salim manifestation of Thy Majesty is
The Faqr of Junaid and Bayazid Thy unveiled Beauty is

(56) I no longer see in the schools of the Haram
Junaid's heart and the insight of Ghaz«lâ and R«zâ
(Appendix III, No. 33)

3. ‘Ali Bin Uthm«n al-Hujwârâ, D«t« Ganj Bakhsh R.A. (1088-1111)- See Appendix I, No. 8. He is one of the favorite Sëfâs of ‘All«mah Iqb«l who had high reverence for him which is shown by his frequent visits to the saint's mausoleum in Lahore. The prominent feature of his tasawwuf also was the liberation of Islamic thought from the impurities of Greek and Persian mysticism. ‘All«mah Iqb«l benefited from him in this respect also.

4. Im«m ‘Abd £«mid al-Ghazali«lâ R.A. (1058-1111)- See Appendix I, No. 33.

He is considered to be one of the greatest thinkers of the world. Though he obtained the best education available in his time he found it futile in knowing the Truth. The biographies of several sëfâs preceding him opened his heart to the Truth. Then he realized that "I saw that what is most peculiar to them (the Sëfâs) cannot be learned from books, but can only be reached by immediate experience, ecstasy and inward information". This perfected his knowledge of the Truth.

Im«m Ghaz«lâ was a very deep thinker and prolific writer. His contribution to human knowledge is two fold. First through his books he conveyed the Greek thought and Islam's modification of it. Later these books were translated into Latin and other European and Asian languages. Secondly his works influenced several eminent Muslim thinkers to the important concepts of Islam. His influence reached ‘All«mah Iqb«l through his writings and those of his successors whom he had influenced. As pointed out in his biography in Appendix I, in a way, Im«m Ghaz«lâ was a pioneer in the task of reforming the Muslim society in different periods of history. His example was a guiding light to Mawl«n« Rëmâ and ‘All«mah Iqb«l and others.

5. Abu al- Majdëd Ibn al- ÿdam £akâm San«’â (ca. 1080-1150)- See Appendix I, No. 70. ‘All«mah Iqb«l was impressed by the sincere Love for God depicted by Hakâm San«â in his writings. The status of Hakâm San«â in this respect can be judged from the following verse of Mawl«n« Rëmâ.

(57) ‘Aèè«r was the spirit and the two eyes were San«â
I rank in this world after ‘Aèè«r and San«â

Both Mawl«n« Rëmâ and ‘All«mah Iqb«l had great reverence for Hakâm San«â. I have given several examples of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's reverence for Hakâm San«â in Chapter 2 under the paragraph "Visit to Afgh«nist«n: At the Tomb of Hakâm San«â". All these poems are worth reading but I refrain from reproducing them for brevity. However, I give the following two verses which prove my assertion. Praying to God he says:

(58) The fervor of Rëmâ, the pathos of Khusro, grant me
The truth and selflessness of San«â grant me

(59) I have settled for Thy Service such that
I shall not take if Thou the whole world, grant me
(Appendix III, No. 33)

6. Mawl«n« Jal«l al-Dân Rëmâ (1207-73)- See Appendix I, No. 65. He is one of the most eminent sëfâs, Islamic thinkers and Islamic poets. His biography summarized in Appendix I shows the thought and work of Mawl«n« Rëmâ and the background in which these were developed. His influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l has also been given there. It can be safely said that Mawl«n« Rëmâ’s influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l was the greatest of all influences. ‘All«mah Iqb«l has accepted Mawl«n« Rëmâ as his preceptor at many places in his works. In his book Javid N«mah Mawl«n« Rëmâ is his companion, guide and preceptor throughout the celestial journey. The following verses beautifully summarize the influence:

(60) Like Rëmâ I made the ÿdh«n in the Haram
From him I have learnt the secrets of life

(61) In the mischievous period of the past was he
In the mischievous period of the present am I
(Appendix III, No. 33).

7.‘Abd al-Karâm al- Jâlâ (d. 1406)- See Appendix I, No. 46. ‘All«mah Iqb«l's respect for al-Jâlâ comes from his concepts of the "Perfect Man" and "Time" as well as being the originator of the dialectical system of reasoning instead of Hegel to whom it is attributed by the Western scholars.

8. Mawl«n« Abd al-Rahm«n J«mâ R.A. (1414-93)- See Appendix I, No. 45. Mawl«n« J«mâ’s extreme Love for God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W. endeared him to ‘All«mah Iqb«l very much. He has expressed his love and reverence for J«mâ in his Persian works, some examples of which are given below:

(62) Sometimes I read the verses of Ir«qâ
Sometimes afire with J«mâ's fire am I

(63) Though I know not the music of Arabia
Participating in the camel driver's music am I
(Appendix III, No. 33)

(64) I perceive signs of immaturity in logic
Its argument is the indication of failure

(65) To me a verse of Rëmâ or J«mâ
The opener of closed doors is
(Appendix III, No. 33)

(66) By the style of Mullah J«mâ enamored am I
By his verse and prose made mature am I
(Appendix III, No. 22)

9. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindâ Mujaddid Alf-i-Th«nâ (1564-1624)- See Appendix I, No. 57. The strongest pillars of Mujaddid's thought and effort were removal of un-Islamic and anti-Islamic practices at the Mughal court and purification of tasawwuf by elimination of un-Islamic ideologies and making it concordant with the Islamic Sharâ‘ah. These were also the aims and objectives of ‘All«mah Iqb«l. These attributes of Mujaddid earned ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s reverence and love for him. He says:

(67) Since three hundred years India's taverns have been closed
It would be appropriate if your favors are now open to all
(Appendix III, No. 29)

In the poem titled "Punj«b Kay Pârz«don Kay N«m" (Addressed to the descendants of the Holy Men of Punjab) in B«l-i-Jibrâl he pays high tributes to Mujaddid, a sample of which is given below:

(68) I presented myself at the mausoleum of Mujaddid
That dust which is the rising place of lights under the sky

(69) The particles of this dust put the stars to shame
That knower of Divine secrets rests in this dust

(70) He refused to submit himself to Jah«ngâr
By the warmth of his breath is the warmth of free men

(71) That guardian of the Millat's wealth in India
Informed by God at the proper times who was
(Appendix III, No. 29)

(3) Original Islamic Literature

The Holy Qur'«n is the one single book which exerted the greatest influence over ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought and way of life. I have shown in Chapter 2 that his study of the Holy Qur'«n was not ritualistic or perfunctory and was not performed merely as a "virtuous act". His heart-felt belief in the Holy Qur'«n being the word of God changed his heart and its ability to accept the Holy Qur'«n's Truth to the extent that he considered its recital and study as tantamount to receiving its message directly from God without a veil :

(72) As long as the Qur'«n is not revealed to your heart
R«zâ or, the author of Al-Kashsh«f will not unravel its mysteries
(Appendix III, No. 29)

He offers the following advice for studying the Holy Qur'«n most effectively i.e. to understand it yourself and not through others:

(73) A captive of the mullah and the sëfâ you are
Not deriving direct life from the Qur'«n you are

(74) You have nothing to do with its verses
Except to die easily with Y«sân's verses

(75) Put a mirror from the Qur'«n before you
From yourself escape when you feel change

(76) Establish a balance for yourself
Mount the upcoming Judgment Day yourself
(Appendix III, No. 33)

He had reached the stage of ‘Irf«n at which he cried out "The insight of a Mu’min is the climax of Intellect" (Appendix III, No. 30). And filled with ecstasy he expresses his Love and reverence for God in one long stanza of the poem titled, "Zawq O Shawq" (The Longing and Its Joy) of which the following verses are the essence:

(77) Both the terrestrial and celestial worlds get illumination from Manifestation Thine!
The speck of sand is endowed with the sun's brilliance by Magnificence of Thine!

(78) The grandeur of Sanjar and Salâm is the Manifestation of Majesty Thine
The faqr of Junaid and B«yazâd is the unveiled Beauty Thine

Considered in this background it is easily understandable that ‘All«mah Iqb«l considered the Holy Qur'«n to be the only existing authentic fountainhead of the Truth. For this reason he used the Holy Qur’«n as the criterion for testing the veracity of all other philosophies and claims of sëfâs emerging from human Intellect and spiritual experiences. This view of his about the Holy Qur'«n is testified by the following hemstitch:

(79) The Beloved's entire speech is the Qur’«n that I have

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

The method of the study of Holy Qur'«n adopted by ‘All«mah Iqb«l manifested the secrets of spiritual universe to his heart. This revelation led him to the belief that a Mu’mins life style is really an exegesis of the Holy Qur’«n. He says:

 (80) Sainthood, sovereignty, the universality of material knowledge
Merely by the unraveling of the secrets of Faith are created!
(Appendix III, No. 25)

(81) This secret is not known to any one that the Mu’min
Appears to be the reader but really the Qur'«n itself is
(Appendix III, No. 32)

The insight into the Holy Qur’«n acquired by him infused in him the unshakable loyalty to its message and to the Muslim Ummah which is the custodian of that message. He has invoked the curse of God on himself if his philosophy or poetry has even one thought outside the Holy Qur’«n. He says:

(82) If my heart a mirror with no worth is
In my word if anything except the Qur'«n is

(83) O Thou who brightens the morning of the ages gone by and speeding
Whose eye the innermost recesses of our hearts is penetrating

(84) Dry up the wine in grapes mine
Throw poison in my pure wine

(85) Wretched and ignominious on the Judgment Day make me
Deprive me of kissing the feet (of the Holy Prophet)

This is a peremptory argument for accepting ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s works as exegesis of the Holy Qur'«n just as the Mathnavâ of Mawl«n« Rëmâ is accepted as "The Holy Qur'«n in the Persian language".

(4) Modern Western Literature

‘All«mah Iqb«l had done extensive and intensive study of the Western literature as he had done of the ancient and Islamic learning. He has shown appreciation for several renowned Western scholars and has admitted being influenced by some of them. The evidence and the extent of his benefiting from Western knowledge is available in his own works. He says:

"I admit that I have benefited from Hegel, Goethe, Mirza Gh«lib, ‘Abd al-Q«dir Bedil and Wordsworth. Hegel and Goethe have guided me in penetrating the internal truth of things. Bedil and Gh«lib taught me how to keep the spirit of the East alive in my feelings and their expression in spite of absorbing the values of Western poetry, and Wordsworth helped me in protecting me from materialism during my educational days".

( Iftikhar Ahmad Siddiqui (1923). (Translator) Maq«l«t-i-Iqb«l: Bazm-i-Iqb«l, Lahore, Pakistan, p. 105, cited in Appendix III, No. 35).

(86) I have drawn wine from the tavern of the West
I have purchased a headache for myself

(87) I have mingled with the good men of the West
I have less compassionate day than that not seen

(Shaikh Ataullah (1964). Iqb«l N«mah. Published by Shaikh Muhammad Ashraf, Vol. 1, p. 4 cited in Appendix III, No.35)

These two quotations speak volumes about ‘All«mah Iqb«l's evaluation of Western thought. In these and many other places he has shown appreciation of the merits of selected Western intellectuals and thinkers. However, benefiting from Western thinkers appears anomalous when considered in the background of the opinions he has expressed of the Western society and its ways. Consideration of the following points will clear this anomaly.

1. ‘All«mah Iqb«l's criticism of the West is that of its governments and their institutions. Their literature and thought are different. These are a part of the heritage of mankind and should be studied and evaluated by all seekers of knowledge. They should be accepted or rejected depending on their contents and quality.

2. Reading and even appreciation of some intellectual's work does not amount to accepting his thought.

3. The study of Western thought was a continuation of his efforts to evaluate non-Islamic literature with the intention of testing its veracity by comparing it with the revealed literature of Islam, which was always the criterion for ‘All«mah Iqb«l as stated earlier. His intention was to determine which of the Western learning and its methodology had enabled Mankind to comprehend the secrets of the universe, material as well as spiritual. He accepted and used what was concordant with the Holy Qur'«n and rejected the rest as fallacious. He had done the same with the writings of the Greek and Muslim thinkers. Thus, the benefits he acquired from Western knowledge are in detail and not in principle, whose source continues to be the Holy Qur'«n.

4. Though he was impressed with some aspects of the Western society, like science and technology, dynamism, spirit of objective inquiry in the intellectual field, he was not dazzled by the glamour of this society. He had realized that the time had come for Muslims to change their defeatist and apologetic attitude and expressly assert the values of Islam. He rejected the Western nations' materialism, imperialism, capitalism, exploitation of the natural resources of the nations under their political and economic subjugation and compartmentalization of life into religion and the political, economic, social systems. Though his criticism of this aspect is spread over his entire works one very good example is found in the poem titled "Lenin Khuda Kay Huzër Main" (Lenin in Audience with God). The following three verses are the climax of Lenin's speech:

(88) Though apparently it is trade, in reality a gamble
The profit of one, is an instant death to millions

(89) This knowledge , wisdom, prudence, government!
They suck blood while preaching equality

(90) The nation which is deprived of the Divine effusion
The climax of it’s excellence is electric and steam Power

(Appendix III, No. 29)

Another example of the ineptness of the Western philosophy to solve the real human problems is to the poem titled Zam«n«-i-H«zir k« Ins«n (The Present Day Man) in Zarb-i-Kalâm (The Stroke of Moses). The climax is reached in the last verse which says :

(91) O one who the energy of the sun could subdue
The night of life’s darkness could not subdue
(Appendix III, No. 32)

5. ‘All«mah Iqb«l considers, with convincing evidence, the Western civilization to be founded on the pillars of Islamic civilization and to be only an extension of the same. It follows from this that the Western science and technology is the lost heritage of Muslim and they should retrieve it. He was convinced that if the Islamic world had continued its efforts in inquiry and inductive logic the Islamic civilization would have reached the same conclusions as the Western science and philosophy. Even in science and technology the Islamic civilization would have made the same strides and would have reached the same goals as the West .In his paper titled " Islam and the New Learning "(Appendix III , No. 43) he says :

"Bacon (Roger Bacon 1216- 92), Descartes (Rene Descartes 1596- 1650), and Mill (John Stuart Mill 1806- 73) are considered to be Europe’s most eminent philosophers, whose philosophy is said to be based on experience, but the fact is that Descartes’ "Method" is present in Im«m Ghaz«lâ’s Al-Iéy« al-‘Ulëm (Revival of Religious Science) and they are so similar that an English historian has written that if Descartes knew Arabic we would have admitted that he committed plagiarism. Bacon himself was educated at an Islamic University (in Islamic Spain) where he acquired his knowledge and wisdom. The objection raised by John Stuart Mill against the first hypothesis of logic is exactly the same as raised by Im«m Fakhr al-Dân R«zâ and all the fundamental principles of Mill's philosophy are present in the famous book of Shaikh Abu Ali Sin«, "Shif«". In short all the principles which form the foundation of modern learning owe their existence to the beneficence of Muslims. In fact I claim that not only with respect to modern learning but there is not one good aspect of human existence which has not been enlivened by Islam's extremely invigorating influence"

(Cited from Appendix III, No. 35,).

In the spiritual field he arrived at the same conclusion as he had done after studying the works of Muslim scholars. This was that though Intellect is sufficient for accepting the Existence of God comprehension of His Essence is not its destiny:

(92) Though Intellect is not far from the threshold
For in audience (with God) its destiny is not
(Appendix III, No. 29,)

It is appropriate at this stage to comment on the reaction of ‘All«mah Iqb«l to some eminent Western thinkers who are said to have influenced his thought. For the sake of brevity I have subjectively selected six such intellectuals. They are arranged chronologically:

i. Dante Alieghieri (1265-1321)- See Appendix I, No. 21

Dante's influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l is questionable. Though his Divine Comedy is considered a masterpiece of Western literature and is widely epitomized, from the Muslim point of view, it is an unrestricted outburst of the religious prejudices of a medieval Christian bigot. Almost everybody of the world figures who lived before Sayyidina ¥s« A.S. and those who were not baptized into the Christian faith after his advent are shown in the 'Inferno' (Hell). This includes personalities like the Holy Prophet S.A.W. and ‘Alâ R.A. Without transcribing this most objectionable language used by Dante I invite reference to the Section "Inferno", Canto 28, Lines 21-35. (The Divine Comedy, Translated by Reverend H.E. Cary. Published by Everyman’s Library at the Temple Press, Letchworth, U.K. 1945 Edition, p. 118. ‘All«mah Iqb«l could not have expressed appreciation for such a person, except possibly for the beauty of the language. It is also incorrect to say that ‘All«mah Iqb«l's J«vâd N«mah (The Book of Eternity) is written in the style of Dante's "Divine Comedy" . In fact the Divine Comedy itself was written in the style of the Mi’r«j N«mahs, several of which existed in the Muslim Spain in Dante's time. After reading such books Dante's Divine Comedy is nothing short of lack of professional integrity. ‘All«mah Iqb«l got inspiration for "J«vâd N«mah" from Muslim literature on Mi‘r«j and his own inborn love for the Holy Prophet S.A.W. and his longing for understanding the spiritual world.

ii. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)- See Appendix I, No. 50.

There was concordance between the Holy Qur'«n, on which ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought is based, and the message of Kant conveyed in his "The Critique of Pure Reason" . ‘All«mah Iqb«l's works are replete with the thought that Intellect is necessary for material progress, may be adequate for comprehension of the Existence of God, as repeatedly stated by the Holy Qur'«n also, it is totally inadequate for the comprehension of His Essence. I have conveyed this information at many places and have consolidated it later in this book under "‘Aql-o-Dil".

iii. Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832)- See Appendix I, No. 35.

Goethe had studied Eastern literature and philosophy through the translations of the works of Shaikh Farâd al-Dân ‘Aèè«r (ca. 1155-1230), Shaikh Sa‘adâ (ca.1184-1291) and Firdawsâ (d. 1020). Goethe's concept of Allah S.W.T. as "God, Lord, Complete Movement, Internal Movement and Action" is in harmony with the Qur’«nic concept which persuaded ‘All«mah Iqb«l to accept his philosophy and influence. Like ‘All«mah Iqb«l, Goethe also believed in the need for Iblâs or Evil for bringing out the potentialities of Mankind into full play and for sorting out the people of virtue from those of vice. ‘All«mah Iqb«l wrote "Pay«m-i-Mashriq" in response to Goethe's "West-Oestlicher Dâw«n" , which is also known as "Movement of the East". He has shown his appreciation for Goethe in the Introduction to "Pay«m-i-Mashriq" .

iv. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)- See Appendix I, No. 38.

Raschid (1981) (Appendix III, No. 52) has developed the thesis that ‘All«mah Iqb«l's concept of God was borrowed from Hegel's concept. His whole argument in this book is fallacious. However, instead of offering my own critique of this book I prefer to refer to Ma‘rëf (1987) (Appendix III, No. 40). His important argument against Raschid's thesis is that Hegel's concept of the Finite cannot be concordant with ‘All«mah Iqb«l's concept of "Al-Hayy al-Qayyëm" (The Living, Self Subsisting, the Eternal), which is based on the Holy Qur'«n 2:255. In addition, I give the following few examples from ‘All«mah Iqb«l's own writings which contradict Raschid's thesis:

In the poem "Jal«l-O-Hegel" [Jal«l ( Mawl«n« Jal«l al-Dân Rëmâ ) and Hegel ] in the book "Pay«m-i-Mashriq" (The Message of the East )‘All«mah Iqb«l compares Mawl«n« Rëmâ with Hegel. I give below only six verses to illustrate the progressive decline of his confidence in Hegel:

(93) One night I was trying to unravel
Mysteries of the German philosopher's thought

(94) As I plunged into his thought's tumultuous sea
The mind's boat as if in a storm was caught

(95) I closed my eyes from the eternal and the ephemeral
Soon sleep engulfed me in a spell's knot

(96) With my inner vision thus sharpened
A saint with a godly face his way to me fought

(97) He said to me "You are asleep, rise!
To sail the boat in a mirage you sought?

(98) Are you trying to traverse the Love's path with Intellect?
The sun with a lamp cannot be sought."
(Appendix III, No. 24)

He has summed up the wisdom of this long poem in another verse which is as follows:

(99) Hegel's thought is a shell without pearl
His talisman is merely an empty dream
(Appendix III, No. 32)

 

v. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900)

The often expressed opinion that ‘All«mah Iqb«l derived his concept of Fard-i-K«mil or Mard-i-Mu'min from Nietzsche's "Superman" is gravely flawed. Nietzsche believed in material power, acquired and used for personal or national glory and aggrandizement. Nietzsche derived his ideology from Niccolo Machiavelli's (1469-1527) I1 Principe (The Prince). This book justifies all the evil acts of the ruler who is also advised how to acquire political power. His ideology produced persons like Adolph Hitler, Benito Mussolini and Joseph Stalin in Europe who would stop at nothing in the acquisition and use of material power for worldly benefits. On the other hand ‘All«mah Iqb«l's Fard-i-K«mil is a person who has developed his Khudâ to the maximum extent by passing through all the stages of subservience to God as detailed in his book Asr«r-i-Khudâ (The Secrets of the Self). His power is spiritual and ethical, instead of the brute military force of the "Superman". Similarly, the aims and objectives of the Fard-i-K«mil are establishment of the 'Kingdom of God for freedom and justice to all'. The following few quotations from ‘All«mah Iqb«l show the extent of the vast difference between him and Nietzsche:

(100) If that Western Sage had been alive in this age
Iqb«l the elegant status of God would have shown him
(Appendix III, No. 29)

(101) Would that in the age of Ahmad4 He had existed
Climax of spiritual bliss he would have had

(102) The Hakâm could not obtain the Tawéâd's secrets
Insight is needed for comprehension of La Il«h's secrets
(Appendix III, No. 32)

(103) He whose temple is built on the £aram's style
In Heart a Mu’min, in Intellect an infidel is
(Appendix III, No.24)

This verse shows that in ‘All«mah Iqb«l's opinion Nietzsche's Mu'min heart enabled him to acquire the concept of dynamism from the Holy Qur'«n but his materialistic, or infidel Intellect misled him into using it for evil purposes. He misused the Islamic concept of dynamism for fulfilling the un-Islamic ideals of the "Superman" of his thinking.

vi. Henry Bergson (1859-1941)- See Appendix III, No. 16.

Bergson's thinking about the Essence of God was somewhat concordant with ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought, which is based on the Holy Qur'«n as stated earlier. For that reason he accepted Bergson's philosophy and benefited from its detailed study. For reasons stated in the "Introduction" this cannot be taken as ‘All«mah Iqb«l basing his concept of God on that of Bergson. So he warns the reader against blind acceptance of the philosophy of Bergson.

(104) If your Khudâ had not abandoned you
Bergson would not have enthralled you

(Appendix III, No. 32)

(5) Nightly Tahajjud Prayers and Meditations, Early Dawn Prayers and Supplications to God for Guidance

In addition to the external sources discussed so far there were three internal sources of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought. They were part and parcel of his personality and made him what he was. The relationship between the internal and external sources is that of the soil and the seed. Neither good quality seed nor water is any use if the soil is poor. These internal sources were based on three attributes of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's character, viz.

i. Im«n or Faith and Belief

ii. Khudâ or cognizance of the potential of Man.

iii. Early morning prayers and supplications to God

Im«n and Khudâ are explained later in this chapter in some detail. For the present it must be remembered that ‘All«mah Iqb«l has praised these attributes in all his works and many examples will be found in the chapters in the translation and commentary. Similarly, early morning prayers, with supplications and wailings to God constitute part of his recipe for attaining perfection in thought and deed. The following is a very comprehensive verse in this context:

(105) ‘Aèè«r, or Rëmâ, or R«zâ or Ghaz«lâ you may be
Nothing is achieved without early morning wailing
(Appendix III, No. 29)

(106) Though the winter's breeze sword's sharpness had
Even in London the habit of rising at dawn I had
(Appendix III, No. 29)

(107) Sainthood, sovereignty, the universality of material knowledge
Merely by the unraveling of the secrets of Faith are created

(Appendix III, No.25)

Conclusion

This discussion leads us to the inevitable inference that in the multi-dimensional sphere of ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s thought the Holy Qur'«n occupies the central position of the nucleus of an atom or that of a biological cell. Like the former the Holy Qur'«n possesses and emanates the light of the Truth, and like the latter it controls all the details, which together constitute ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought. The internal sources affecting the development of his thought provided the fertile ground in which the external influences grew and bloomed into his creative literature. It is, therefore, appropriate to say that the raison d' etre of his works is the elucidation and elaboration of the Wisdom of God and of His word, i.e. the Holy Qur’«n. The bouquet he created has the Holy Qur'«n as the center piece and other thoughts the pattern enhancing its beauty.