THE PHILOSOPHY OF ‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL: SOURCES AND EXPRESSION
IN
BÿNG-I-DARÿ

SECTION II
EXPRESSION OF ‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL'S
THOUGHT IN BÿNG-I-DARÿ

Every book of ‘All«mah Iqb«l has a message whose clarification is the purpose of that book. "B«ng-i-Dar«" covers practically the whole panorama of his thought. Each poem has a message, which has been indicated and briefly reviewed, if necessary, in the "Introduction" of that poem. However, some aspects of his thought, expressed in this book, are of major importance and can be considered to be its pillars. Some of them are controversial in themselves and on some ‘All«mah Iqb«l's views appear controversial. Their proper understanding is essential for the correct comprehension of the poems in which they occur. The following topics have been selected subjectively for this purpose.

1. TaÅawwuf

2. The controversy of Waédat al-Wujëd (The Unity of Existence) and Waédat al- Shuhëd, (The Unity of Manifestation)

3. Faqr

4. The status of Man in the Universe and the concept of Khudâ

5. The controversy of 'Aql (Intellect) and Dil (Heart or Intuition)

6. Political views of ‘All«mah Iqb«l, particularly the concept of "nation"

The critics of ‘All«mah Iqb«l differ on his views on some of these components of his thought. The evaluation presented here is the result of my own comprehension of his works. Before discussing these subjects it is necessary to explain that each of these subjects is so wide as to need a separate book for elucidation of all its aspects, and separate books have been written on some of them. However, the scope and available space in this book do not permit exhaustive treatment of these subjects. Consequently, I shall restrict myself to the minimum necessary to understand the translation and commentary.

1.TaÅawwuf- Though taÅawwuf itself does not form the theme of any poem its clear understanding and that of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's views on it is necessary for correct comprehension of many poems. The etymology of this word is controversial. Walâ al-Dân (1948) (Appendix III, No 56) has discounted the four commonly held views on the grounds of grammar and usage.

Walâ-al-Dân (Appendix III, No. 56) gives the opinions of several eminent scholars and Sëfâs about the origin of Sëfâ and TaÅawwuf . Though he has cited the opinions of several other eminent Sëfâs I refrain from including them here for brevity. However, they all agree on the definition of taÅawwuf by Shaikh al-Islam Zakariy«h AnÅ«râ (11th. century) viz. "TaÅawwuf is the science which shows the method of cleansing the soul, improvement of conduct and reconstruction of the outer as well as the inner life for obtaining eternal felicity".

According to ‘All«mah Iqb«l himself (Appendix III, No. 21) the "Sëfâ" ideal of life appeared about the end of the eighth and the first half of the ninth century, created by the political, social, and intellectual conditions of the Muslim society, which resulted in the tendencies of seclusion in the life of pious persons. These persons spent most of their time in prayer and contemplation, which is the essence of Sëfism. The conditions are summarized below:

A. This was a period of political unrest resulting from the following events:

(a) Overthrow of the Umayyad Dynasty (749)

(b) Persecution of real and suspected blasphemers and revolt of Persian heretics and Ustadhis (766-68).

(c) Appearance of £akam Ibn Hash«m al-Muqann«’, known as "the veiled prophet" in Khur«s«n (777-80). He always wore a veil which gave him the above name. He claimed to be a prophet but really he cloaked his anti-Islamic political projects in the guise of religion and collected a sizable group of followers.

(d) Quarrels between the sons of H«rën al-Rashâd (Mamën and Amân) for political supremacy.

(e) Rise and establishment of independent Persian dynasties, viz. the ñ«éirid (820), the Samarid (868) and Samanid (874) kingdoms.

B. The skeptical tendencies of Islamic rationalism which entered the Muslim society from the Greek and Zoroastrian philosophies. Everything which could not be proved by logic was rejected. The most important of such concepts in the context of this commentary was Waédat-al-Wujëd whose harmful effects on the Muslim society have been explained in Chapter 2 and later in this one.

C. The dry piety of the followers of the four schools of fiqh of the Sunnâs and that of the Shi‘as. The ‘Ulem«’ lacked the Love of God as well as that of Mankind. This reduced the Sharâ‘ah to an unending series of punishments and failed to create human love and understanding.

D. The religious debates, called Mun«ïar«t, among the leaders of the various creeds, encouraged by Khalâfah Mamën al-Rashâd, created bitterness among Muslims and divided their society into internecine quarrels and enmity, which has continued till today.

E. The gradual reduction of religious zeal created by the rise of rationalism mentioned above and the rapid flow of wealth among the Muslims during the early Abbasid period made the Muslim elite slack in the observance of religious rites and duties

F. The apparent charm in the quality of the religious faith of the Christian ascetics captured the imagination of the Muslim scholars to follow them as an ideal.

In my humble opinion another explanation also exists in addition to the foregoing about the origin and contents of taÅawwuf. This explanation is based on the ingenious strategy of Providence in making Mankind inquisitive in nature and at the same time concealing all secrets from him. This is beautifully described by ‘All«mah Iqb«l in Poem 67. "Ins«n" (Mankind) in B«ng-i-Dar« whose translation may be perused in the light of this chapter. It is clear from this that the Creator Himself wants Mankind to know His innermost secrets so as to obtain everlasting happiness, such as one gets by coming to know what he does not know.

The whole Creation of God can be divided into two levels of existence viz., (1) the ÿlam al-Shuhëd (the Physical or Material Universe) and (2) the ÿlam-al-Ghayb (the Metaphysical or Spiritual Universe), which exists beyond the Material Universe.

Knowledge of the Physical Universe can be acquired by experimentation. The method of experimentation covers all sciences, physical, biological and social, fundamental as well as applied. The results obtained from experiments can be presented in a systematized, mutually correlated form through the medium of scientific reasoning. The methodology of experimentation is repeatable, and when repeated produces the same results every time. Scientists have accumulated an extremely valuable treasure of knowledge by centuries of patient study. Still much remains to be known.

The Metaphysical or Spiritual Universe does not lend itself to experimentation of the type to which the Physical Universe does. Still the knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe can be obtained in the following three ways:

1. Divine Revelation-God has conveyed a great deal of knowledge to Mankind by Divine Revelation in the form of Waéy to His specially selected servants called Prophets and through other forms of revelation to the persons of smaller status. The contents as well as the language of such revelations has been made progressively sophisticated in concordance with the progressively evolving Intellect of the succeeding recipient generations of humanity. Remnants of the past revelations presently exist and constitute the treasure house of the heritage of Mankind. Unfortunately, such revelations have been variously intermixed with impurities in the forms of distortions and tampering, intentional as well as unintentional. Fortunately the last such Revelation still exists in the Holy Qur'«n in its original contents as well as in pristine literary excellence.

2. Philosophy Some knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe can be and has been obtained through philosophy, which is based on human thinking and logic. Here also there is a serious difficulty. While the structure of religion and science is based on positive thinking that of philosophy rests on skepticism and doubt, which are forms of negative thinking. Philosophy probes into the nature of things by doubting the existing knowledge. The results of such a process are necessarily inconclusive and subjective. This creates serious objections to its acceptance. In these circumstances a great part of the Metaphysical Universe not only remains hidden from human comprehension but will remain beyond their reach by pursuing the accepted approaches of philosophy.

3. TaÅawwuf The knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe is a part of the wisdom of the verses of the Holy Qur'«n, called Mut«sh«bih«t, which are defined as "allegorical, multivalent or obscure in meaning", in contrast with those called Muékam«t which are clear and decisive in meaning. The Holy Qur'«n refers to these two kinds of verses in 3:7. Much controversy exists among the exegesists of the Holy Qur’«n about the interpretation of this particular verse as well as the whole problem of Muékam«t and Mut«sh«bih«t verses. Ayoub (1992) (Appendix III, No. 10, Vol. 2) has discussed only three aspects of this problem, viz.

1. The meaning and significance of this problem

2. The identity of "those in whose hearts is deviancy"

3. The identity of "those who are firmly rooted in knowledge"

Study of this reference is recommended for more clarification.

Understanding the Mut«sh«bih«t verses is extremely difficult and is not possible without deep insight in and hard labor by the ÿrif and without Divine Help. The often repeated injunction of the Holy Qur'«n 'to meditate over the Signs of God in the Universe and in the Holy Qur'«n itself' is a clear pointer to this being the only possible way for the ÿrif to know the secrets of the Metaphysical Universe (30:20-27; 41:53; 89:15-16 to quote only a few).

This meditation was performed by those pious persons who wanted to know the Truth. They withdrew from the common people and the ignoble strife of their daily life and spent days and nights meditating and praying to God to show them the right way to get to the core of the Truth in accordance with the Holy Qur'«n 1:5-7. Such persons were Sëfâs and the treasure of knowledge they have accumulated over the centuries is the knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe called taÅawwuf, which also is an invaluable heritage of all Mankind. The pioneers of taÅawwuf have laid down the methodology of acquiring this knowledge and benefiting from it. Variations in the methodology exist which have given rise to different Sëfâ orders called ñarâqah.

Thus, taÅawwuf is really the science of attaining proximity to God. The Sëfâ who is conversant with this proximity, knows the secrets of the proximity of the created and the Creator and of the latter being the Primal and the Ultimate. He does not only know the secrets but also encompasses these secrets completely. When he leaves his material body on death he attains the proximity of God. According to the Holy Qur’«n 56:8-10 humanity will be divided into three classes on the Day of Judgment. These will be "Companions of the Right Hand", "Companions of the Left Hand" and those "Foremost in Faith and Foremost in the Hereafter". The first class acquired knowledge which guided them in their conduct during life. Their reward is described in verses 56:27-38. The second class are those who acquired knowledge which trapped them in the worldly pleasures and greed. They were misled and their punishment is described in 56:42-46 and 50-56. The third one is the class which has attained proximity to God by their knowledge, deeds, the Love of God and the sacrifices required by that Love, according to the Holy Qur’«n 2:155 and many other verses. Their reward is the highest and is described in verses 56:11-26. The best part of their highest award is the proximity to God.

The proximity of God in the worldly life is attained by taÅawwuf. The Sëfâ is nearest to God and derives the realization of his trust from the realization of his faqr , (vide infra for meaning). This realization of his faqr leads him to the realization of the qualities of his own existence and self cognizance called An« (Self or I-ness) and Khudâ by ‘All«mah Iqb«l. The Sëfâ realizes that the attributes and actions of ownership and authority are only a trust and are not his property. Hence he realizes that he owes his existence to the Existence and the Will of God, his life to His Life, his knowledge to His knowledge, his powers and intentions to His Powers and Intentions, his hearing to His hearing, his sight to His Sight and his speech to His Speech etc.

The object of the Sëfâ’s Love and Longing is God, his life and his death, his ‘Ib«dah are all for God and for Him alone. He is always unaware of and unconcerned with everything except God. His heart is purified. In this sense he is close to the Truth and separated from all else. His creed is;

In short in the words of ‘All«mah Iqb«l;

(109) No one encompasses this secret that the Mu’min
Apparently is reading the Qur’«n but really the Qur’«n he is
(Appendix III, No. 32)

In conclusion it can be said that while science and Revelation are based on the head taÅawwuf is based on the heart.

The foregoing account is a description of true taÅawwuf and Sëfâ. It is quite obvious that the creed and theory of taÅawwuf is in line with the Qur’«nic teachings and goals. This was the purpose and goal of all the Divinely revealed religions and prophets and that of Islam par excellence. See the Holy Qur’«n 2:120; 16:64-65; 39:23.

These are the positive aspects of taÅawwuf as stated by its proponents. Other divergent views also exist which have been discussed by AnÅ«râ (1986) (Appendix III, No. 9, pp. 119-39). Discussion of these controversies is neither possible in this chapter nor is conducive to the comprehension of B«ng-i-Dar«. So I refrain from it. The above reference may be perused if desired.

The early Sëfâs were on the right path and rendered invaluable service to Islam and its thought. Islam spread over the greater part of the world, particularly in Asia through the efforts of Sëfâs. They have stood the test of time and are still attesting to the achievements of Sëfâs. There is hardly any city or town in this region which does not have one or more tombs or mausoleums of these sages. The Sëfâs had no military force to subjugate the people into accepting Islam. They had no wealth to entice them. They had no political or economic influence to pass on to their followers. All they had was the depth of knowledge, and spiritual experience and the force of their conviction in that knowledge and experience. They worked hard and were a role model of selflessness. Their qualities of the head and heart achieved what no material resources could. Cf.

For examples of the achievements of Sëfâs see the biographical notes on some Sëfâs in Appendix III and for the rest in Quddësâ (1976) (Appendix III, No. 49). ‘All«mah Iqb«l has paid them high tributes all through his works. Many examples exist in B«ng-i-Dar« and they have been referred to in the translation and commentary at the appropriate places.

While the early Sëfâ were on the right path undesirable views, beliefs and practices crept into taÅawwuf later, which drew the ire of Fuqah«, especially those interpreting the Sharâ‘ah literally. It opened the doors of bid‘ahs and made it difficult for the average Muslim to know the right course. However, an incontrovertible criterion exists for a Muslim to judge taÅawwuf on the basis of the Holy Qur’«n and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. Unfortunately, this also is fraught with the same problem, i.e. the relative credibility of contradictory interpretations.

The objectionable trends came into taÅawwuf from several sources. The more important of these is the infiltration of the Greek, Persian, and to some extent the Hindu philosophies. Very early in the Islamic history two groups of thinkers appeared, called Ash«‘irah and the Më‘tazilah. The former were the followers of ‘Abu al-£asan ‘Alâ Ibn Ism«âl al-Ash’«râ (873-935). They remained steadfast to the commands of the Holy Qur’«n and the Sunnah. In this group also some scholars interpreted the Sharâ‘ah literally, which resulted in considerable harm. The latter interpreted the Sharâ‘ah through logic and Intellect. The ineptness of their approach is discussed later under "‘Aql O Dil". They made strange interpretations of the Mut«sh«bih«t verses. Their main disservice to Islam was the concept that the Sharâ‘ah and its observance was incumbent on the ordinary Muslims only and not on Sëfâs who were the select people of God and were absolved of the responsibility of obedience to follow the Shari’«h.

Instead of seeking the ways and means of obtaining the proximity of God many Sëfâs focused their attention on acquiring the techniques of performing apparently superhuman acts, like walking on water and on burning embers, healing the sick and easing worldly hardships of people. Even recourse was taken to un-Islamic practices of learning these techniques by learning the jugglers' tricks from their Greek and Hindu practitioners. The Sëfâs found a short cut to do these tricks to attain prestige in the eyes of the people instead of following the difficult path of gaining proximity to God, who may have eventually endowed them with such powers. Obviously, the main purpose of these practices was self aggrandizement and obtaining material benefits. The Shaikhs, both alive and dead, became the objects of extraordinary reverence, verging on their deification to some extent. All this led to the polarization of the Muslim society into two groups. One group interpreted the Shari’«h literally and made its practice difficult as well as a mere ritual. The other was the group of Sëfâs who commercialized Islam. One inescapable consequence of this state of affairs was the alienation of the present day educated Muslims from Islam itself.

Just as ‘All«mah Iqb«l has paid great tributes to the Sëfâs of the correct type he has exhibited equally great frustration from and abhorrence towards those of the wrong type. The examples of this are numerous but I am presenting only a few. All except the last one have been selected from B«l-i-Jibrâl (Appendix III, No. 29). The last one is from Zarb-i-Kalâm (Appendix III, No. 32)

2. The Controversy of Waédat al-Wujëd vs.. Waédat al-Shuhëd - Under the influence of the Greek and Zoroastrian philosophies some Muslim thinkers also degraded Man to a non-entity in the creation of God in spite of the clear teachings of the Holy Qur’«n to the contrary. Greeks were the originators of two main philosophies concerning creation, Universe or Matter. These are called "Idealism" and "Realism". These terms mean different in philosophy from their meaning in common English. "Idealism" says that the real existence is only of One Being, which chooses myriad of forms to manifest Itself. The Universe, made up of these forms, is only a mirage with no real existence and is a creation of Man's ideas only. The theory of "Realism" says that the Universe or Matter has a real existence, which is eternal with no beginning and no end. These two diverse theories are the progenitors of all subsequent theories about God and Matter, vis a vis each other.

Based on the theory of "Idealism" the famous Sëfâ Ibn al-‘Arabâ (Appendix I, No. 40) postulated his doctrine of Waédat-al-Wujëd. On the basis of "Realism" agnostics and atheists propounded their theories of atheism and deification of Matter. These two theories have always been in conflict with each other.

The basic concept of Ibn al-‘Arabâ is that there is only One Being or Existence. It means that: (i) all that exists is One Being; (ii) that the One Being or Existence has no parts; (iii) that it is neither more here nor less there. It is Indivisible and Homogeneous. Even in the time of Ibn al-’Arabâ many Muslim ‘Ulama and Sëfâs challenged his views and presented the via media between the two extreme theories described above. Famous personalities in this class are: Im«m al-Ghaz«1â (Appendix I, No. 33), Ibn Taymiyah (Appendix I, No.42) and Mawl«n« Rëmâ (Appendix I, No. 65) among the early thinkers and Sëfâs and Mujaddid Alf Th«nâ (Appendix I, No. 57) and ‘All«mah Iqb«l among the latter ones. They consider Matter or Universe to be the creation of God or His "Reflection" or "Light". Mujaddid named this concept as Waédat al-Shuhëd. This theory says that:

i. God is completely different from the creation or the Universe. The two are not the same individual or homogeneous entity but two different entities.

ii. The Universe proceeds from or is created by God. In other words 'All is not He' (Ham« ëst) but from Him (Ham« az ëst).

iii. The Universe is not real but only a reflection or virtual image of something else which is real. Being only a virtual image it is not eternal and is ephemeral. The eternal Existence is only that of God. Creation will be annihilated, changed to some other form or substituted by some other Universe at the Will of God.

iv. Though the Universe is unreal it is not completely imaginary or a phantom. It is the image of something real whose nature we do not know and is the object of the quest of Man.

v. The components of the Universe have a power or will of their own. Man also has a power or will of his own.

The theory of Waédat al-Shuhëd is based on the teachings of the Holy Qur'«n and Hadâth. For a comprehensive critique of Waédat al-Wujëd and Mujaddid's views on it see AnÅ«râ (1986) (Appendix III, No. 9, pp. 101-17). Of the many theological and philosophical flaws in the theory of Waédat al-Wujëd described by Mujaddid the most important in the view of ‘All«mah Iqb«l in the present context is the concept of "Pre-ordination","Determinism" or "Fatalism" which entered the Muslim society later.

Among the Muslims the concept of "Waédat al-Wujëd " was most strictly adhered to by the Ash«‘irah. In their usual manner of literal interpretation they said that all objects are composed of identical particles. Man is composed of the same particles as all the other creation. They explain the obvious differences between Man and other creatures as well as the differences between the different components of creation by attributing it to the Will of God, which has preordained everything. This Will is unquestionable and immutable. This preordination includes all the lucky and unlucky events that befall Man in his life on earth. They find confirmation of this belief in the Sëfâ concept that both the good and the evil in this world come from God, which is one of Muslim beliefs also. The concept of preordination has produced the concept of Fatalism which says that the Fate of a person, like everything else, is preordained by the Immutable Will of God. This ended in the concept of the ineptness of the human race to control its destiny which was considered to be predetermined by the only Being which alone really existed. The preordination constituted the person's Immutable destiny or Fate. As I have stated earlier under this concept human effort became redundant and useless. This led the Muslim society abandoning dynamism and becoming static with all the misfortunes associated with it and described earlier. In the individual’s life also this concept not only paralyzed the individual’s desire and will to improve his condition and perform good deeds for the betterment of one's own self as well as that of the Muslim Ummah and the human race at large. It also denies God's Omnipotent nature as revealed in many verses of the Holy Qur’«n, e.g. 2:284. ‘All«mah Iqb«l says in this respect

 Another harmful aspect of Waédat al-Wujëd is the belief that the highest felicity for Man is Fan« Fi Allah (Annihilation or Merger with God), for which annihilation of one's self and complete withdrawal from the mundane material world is essential. This would also lead to cessation of all human effort for the betterment and progress of the self as well as that of the Ummah and mankind at large. For the Ash«‘irah and Mu`tazilah and their controversy see Iqb«l (1908) (Appendix III, No. 20)

‘All«mah Iqb«l has opposed both these aspects of Waédat al-Wujëd. Regarding the former he said that according to the Holy Qur'«n God has conferred a will and autonomy on Man, albeit limited. He considers evil as necessary for the realization of good and separation of the virtuous and sinning individuals. He based his argument on the Holy Qur'«n 4:79, according to which whatever good comes to man comes from God and whatever evil befalls him comes from himself. He explains this verse or the above mentioned concept of the coexistence and interdependence of good and evil with the example of a bird. The resistance of the air, which is an obstruction to its flight, is also essential for the flight, which is possible only by overcoming this resistance by the bird. In the same way overcoming evil is within the power and the will of a person through which he overcomes evil and attains virtue. If the person does not use his will to overcome the obstructions in his path he fails and meets with evil, as the bird which does not want to face the air's resistance cannot fly.

Regarding the latter concept ‘All«mah Iqb«l perceived in Sëfism the danger of reducing all human effort to passive mystical contemplation. This was not his concept of Man. Consequently, criticizing this aspect of sëfism he says :

"The only danger to which the ego is exposed in this Divine quest is the possible relaxation of his activity caused by his enjoyment of and absorption in the experiences that precede the final experience. The history of Eastern Sëfism shows that this is a real danger. This was the whole point of the reform movement initiated by the great Indian saint (Shaikh AHED Sirhindâ, Mujaddid Alf-i-Th«nâ) from whose writings I have already quoted a passage. And the reason is obvious. The ultimate aim of the ego is not to see something, but to be something. It is in the ego's effort to be something that he discovers his final opportunity to sharpen his objectivity and acquire a more fundamental 'I am', which finds evidence of its reality not in the Cartesian 'I think' but in Kantian 'I can'. The end of the ego's quest is not emancipation from the limitations of individuality; it is on the other hand, a more precise definition of it. The final act is not an intellectual act, but a vital act which deepens the whole being of the ego, and sharpens his will with the creative assurance that the world is not something to be merely seen or known through concepts, but something to be made and re-made by continuous action. It is a moment of supreme bliss and also a moment of the greatest trial for the ego. (Appendix III, No.27, pp. 197-98).

He considers the eating of the forbidden fruit by Sayyidina ÿdam A.S. as the first exercise of the will and autonomy bestowed by God on Man. This was a forbidden act but it led to the ultimate good in the sense that the transfer of Sayyidina ÿdam's A.S. to the earth and his seeing and acquiring knowledge of God and His creation resulted in the Manifestation of God.

In the whole creation of God Man was the only creation who could comprehend the beauty and the wisdom of the Creator and who could use the Universe wisely and could even improve it. So, according to Islam the act of eating of the fruit of the forbidden tree was neither a sin committed by Sayyidina ÿdam A.S. nor his transfer to the earth was a punishment for that sin. It was an act of the will of Sayyidina ÿdam A.S., which was committed in accordance with the Universal Wisdom of God and resulted in His Manifestation. No other creature could do it. ‘All«mah Iqb«l expressing this view says:

(120) Though Thy Eternal Essence since eternity had existed
Fragrance had not diffused though flower in the garden existed
(Appendix III, No. 25)

It frees Man from the slavery of Determinism and makes him master of his own destiny, based on the concept of autonomy granted by God to Man.

3. Faqr- Faqr is an Arabic word literally meaning "poverty", "indigence" and "material needs" and faqâr is a poor, needy or indigent person. However, faqr is also a technical term of taÅawwuf. ‘Alâ Hujwârâ (Appendix I, No. 8) has given a detailed description of this term in his famous book al-Kashf al- Maéjëb, (The Unveiling of the Veiled) (Appendix III, No. 7). He describes faqr as a state of the mind or nafs, in which possession of material wealth or not possessing it has no effect on the person. The following quotation sums up his explanation:

"Faqr has a form (rasm) and an essence (éaqâqat). Its form is destitution and indigence, but its essence is fortune and free choice. He who regards the form rests in the form, and failing to attain his object, flees from the essence, but he who has found the essence averts his gaze from all created things, and, in complete annihilation, seeing only the All-One he hastens towards the fullness of eternal life. The faqâr has nothing and can suffer no loss. He does not become rich by having anything, nor indigent by having nothing: both these conditions are alike to him in respect of his faqr "

‘All«mah Iqb«l has written much on faqr and some of these poems are very forceful, both linguistically as well as emotionally. His concept of faqr is based on the same foundations as mentioned in the first sentence in the above quotation. He also recognizes the above mentioned two kinds of faqr. He has high respect and praise for the faqr of the "essence" type and condemnation for that of the "form" type. His attitude is based on the fact that the faqr of the former kind is practiced by persons of Faith and Love of God and that of the latter kind is done by the opposite kind of persons. They become and remain poor due to their belief in fatalism which ends in their distancing themselves from effort.

The long poem titled Faqr in the book Pas Che B«yad Kard Ay Aqw«m-i-Sharq (So What Should be Done O Oriental Nations) ‘All«mah Iqb«l has described the miraculous effects of faqr on the actions of the true Mumin and his achievements. This poem is so beautiful and appealing that I cannot resist the temptation of quoting a few verses below even at the risk of using some space.

(121) O People of the material world, What is faqr?
Faqr is insight into the way, a living heart

(122) Faqr is the comprehension of one’s obligation
Struggling for the two words of La Il«ha⁶ it is

(123) Faqr is Khaibar's conqueror with barley's bread is⁷
Carrying in its saddle bag all kings and chiefs is

(124) Faqr the Desire, Longing, submission and will is
We are its trustees, that the wealth of Mustaf« is

(125) Its substance is derived from the Holy Qur'«n
Impossible to confine the saint in a blanket is

(126) The wisdom of dân the fascination of faqr
The power of dân is the freedom of faqr

(127) The Qur'«n's faqr reckoning of past and present is
Not ecstasy, singing, music and merry-making it is

(128) What is the Mu’min’s faqr ? Conquering of the world !
Under its influence Man is the possessor of divine attributes

(129) The infidel's faqr is seclusion at home and in wilderness
The Mu'min's faqr the power to shake the world in fear is!

(130) The unveiled faqr the heat of Badr and Hunain is ⁸
The unveiled faqr the call of Husain's ⁹ Takbir is
(Appendix III, No. 30)

 In B«l-i-Jibrâl (The Gabriel's Wings) in poem 59 he praises the faqr of the "essence" type. Though the whole poem is worth reading I give only a few verses below for the sake of brevity:

(131) The miracles of Faqr are the crown, the throne, the army
Faqr , the chief of chiefs is, faqr the king of kings is !

(132) The object of knowledge cleansing of the Intellect is
The aim of faqr cleansing of the heart and the insight is

(133) Knowledge, jurist and scholar; faqr Masâh ¹⁰ and Kalâm ¹¹
Knowledge seeker of the way, faqr knower of the way is
(Appendix III, No. 29)

In the poem Faqr in the same book he describes the evils and virtues of the "form" and "essence" types of faqr in the first and second hemistichs respectively of each verse:

(134) One faqr teaches the hunter how the hunted to be!
One faqr opens the secrets of world sovereignty

(135) With one faqr dust gets the attributes of elixir
With one faqr in nations there is sorrow and poverty

(136) One faqr is Shabbârâ ¹², in this faqr is success!
The heritage of the Muslim, the wealth of Shabbârâ !
(Appendix III, No. 29)

4. Khudâ This word is usually translated into English as 'ego' or 'self'. According to the New Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary 'ego' means 'the subject which is conscious of itself, thinks, has experience of, and determines the outside world as the 'object' or 'non-ego'. According to the same source 'self' means 'the individuality or nature of a person or thing; a person's nature or an aspect of it, as revealed by his behavior'. Khudâ is also a technical term of taÅawwuf which will be the subject of our discussion. Though the adequate elucidation of the concept of Khudâ would need a separate book, some of which already exist, some explanation of it is necessary at this stage to understand several poems in B«ng-i-Dar« and to obtain an understanding of this very important component of the thought of ‘All«mah Iqb«l. As has been stated earlier Islamic thought was influenced most by the Greek philosophy, out of the four philosophies existing at the time of the advent of Islam, viz. Greek, Persian or Zoroastrian, Hindu and Chinese. As also stated earlier this influence came into Muslims directly as well as through Christian literature, which had been greatly influenced by the Greek philosophy.

These philosophies considered the Universe as eternal or the creation of a fortuitous accident or a playful act of the gods, or at best an impulsive Will of the Supreme Being in the Pantheon. Regarding Man the Greek philosophy of Idealism denied the very existence of Man beyond being an insignificant part of the Universe, which itself was considered to be only a figment of human imagination, with no real existence.

The Christian thought added to it the concept of "primeval sin" committed by S. ÿdam (A.S.) on account of which he was expelled from Paradise. The Holy Qur’«n rejected all these theories and declared that the Universe was created by God with a purpose, was well planned and was not eternal as previously explained in some detail. In complete negation and contradiction of these philosophies the Holy Qur'«n presented the opposite view. It designated Man as the masterpiece of creation, created in the best of molds, God's own image, endowed with free will and designated as the Khalâfah or vicegerent of God on earth (The Holy Qur’«n 2:30; 6:2, 164, 165; 10:99, Note 1480 in the reference in Appendix III, No. 8; 15:26, 29; 16:4-8; 90:8-10; and 95:4). ‘All«mah Iqb«l has adopted the same view and has propagated it throughout his works. It will be right to consider khudâ as the strongest pillar of his philosophy. Though Man has been created from lowly elements, symbolized by clay in the Holy Qur'«n, he owes his superiority to the possession of a special faculty which is rather inexplicable, though it has been known by different names, such as spirit, soul, rëé, mind, conscience, etc. Each one of these words is a collective name for the Divinely endowed qualities of comprehension, pious affections, spiritual insight and free will. These faculties were meant to enable Man to understand, appreciate, judiciously manage and benefit from the Universe. In the whole creation of God Man was the only entity who could appreciate the Wujëd (Existence) of God and comprehend His Z«t (Essence). Other creatures, inanimate as well as animate are incapable of these attributes and have only an involuntary existence, following the physical laws of the Universe which is their destiny.

Such a being as Man would obviously have a superior concept of his own entity, its purpose, aims and end. ‘All«mah Iqb«l calls this faculty Khudâ. He has very beautifully explained this potential of Man for comprehension of the Creator and the creation in the poem "Taskhâr-i-Fièrat", Part I "Mâl«d-i-ÿdam" (Subjugation of Nature, Part I, The Birth of Man). As selection is impossible the whole poem is given below:

(137) Love cried out that a very compassionate entity had appeared
Beauty trembled that an entity with Insight had appeared

(138) Nature was surprised that from the helpless earth's dust
A maker of self, destroyer of self, seer of self had appeared

(139) News went out from the sky to the eternity’s bed chamber
Warning the veiled ones the one tearing the veils had appeared

(140) The longing, unaware of itself, in the bosom of life
Opened its eyes to a new world which had appeared

(141) Life said that it had tarried in the dust all its life
Till in this ancient vault an opening had appeared
(Appendix III: No. 24 )

Khudâ is comprised of the following four components:

i. Realization of the superiority of Man and the potential of his spiritual powers. This is very beautifully described in poem 25 "Ins«n aur Bazm-i-Qudrat" (Man and Nature's Assembly) in B«ng-i-Dar« which may be perused for understanding and enjoying this concept.

ii. Comprehension of the relative values of Intellect and Love (or Intellect and Intuition, or the Head and the Heart). See poem No. 15 "‘Aql -O Dil" (The Intellect and the Heart) in B«ng-i-Dar« for appreciating this concept.

iii. Comprehension of the controversy of "Khair and Shar" (Good and Evil) for which perusal of poem No. 46 "Aik Parinda aur Jugnë" (A Bird and the Fire Fly) in B«ng-i-Dar« is recommended.

iv. Comprehension of the human desire for eternal life. This desire is universal and has existed in Man since his creation. It started with the secret of Chashmah-i-Hay«t (The Spring of Eternity) whose water would confer eternity, and Iksâr (Elixir) which would convert base metals into gold and confer eternal wealth. Though these goals have remained unrealized the human efforts in these directions became the fountainhead from which flowed the springs of knowledge which have created the whole reservoir of learning which God has conferred on Man. Perusal of poem 48 "Kan«r-i-R«vâ" (On the Banks of the ravi), in B«ng-i-Dar«, specially the last stanza is recommended for understanding this concept.

Though ‘All«mah Iqb«l's works are replete with the concept of the superiority of Man I have to content myself with just one verse which I give below:

(142) I have learnt the lesson from the Prophet's Ascension to the Spiritual World
That the world of Man transcends the spiritual world
(Appendix III, No. 29)

‘All«mah Iqb«l has recommended the following program for the development of khudâ in the book Asr«r-i-Khudâ (The Secrets of the Self):

i. Love of God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W.

ii. Obedience of God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W., based on the Love mentioned under (i).

iii. Distancing one self from Fatalism which is an offshoot of Plato's philosophy as explained earlier.

iv. Abstention from asking favors from any other than God.

v. Creation and procreation of objectives and ideals. The best of these are to exalt and propagate the name and commandments of God by all means possible and to enact and establish them after attaining the necessary political and material power.

vi. Holding fast to the characteristic Islamic traditions in order to attain and continue honor in material life.

vii. Instead of trying to attain eternity by merging with the Essence of God by annihilation of the self and divorcing the material life one should submit his will to the Will of God and attain fulfillment of His slavery.

viii. Attainment of the vicegerency of God as the final stage when a person can and should establish the Kingdom of God, or the Islamic State on earth.

The climax of Khudâ consists in merging the individual's Khudâ into that of the Ummah. ‘All«mah Iqb«l designates this as Bekhudâ. He has discussed this in his other book Rumuz- i-Bekhudâ (The Mysteries of Selflessness). This book is complementary to Asr«r-i-Khudâ and transcends, by far, the boundaries indicated by its name. It is a treatise on the plan and constitution of the Islamic State on the basis of the Holy Qur'«n and Aé«dâth. Even a summary of this book is not possible in this chapter. However, the concepts contained in it are repeatedly stated in his other books including B«ng-i-Dar« and will be pointed out in the translation and commentary at the appropriate places.

The erroneous concept created by Waédat al-Wujëd and the correct one offered by Islam are summed up in the first and the second verse respectively as follows:

(143) You want God as well as this base world
This is wishful thinking, difficult, insanity

(144) What is worldliness, to become heedless of God
Not clothes, wealth, children and spouse

Rëmâ

It will be seen from the foregoing that the prescription for developing Khudâ is the same as that of Islam. In that sense it completes the argument that the potential of Man for full development cannot be attained by any method except accepting Islam as one's way of life and submission of one's will to the Will of God.

It is anomalous as well as unfortunate that the concept of Khudâ, the strongest pillar of ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s philosophy, should also become the focus of strongest criticism. This criticism is based on two misunderstandings. The first misunderstanding is the concept of Fatalism, which is an offshoot of the theory of Waédat al-Wujëd. Under the influence of this theory many later Sëfâs, specially those in Persia and India held fast to the notion that a person could not obtain the knowledge of and proximity to God without divorcing all material worldly objects including one's own person. The latter meant annihilation of the self. The whole discipline of this is nothing short of asceticism, which the Holy Qur’«n and the Holy Prophet S.A.W. have categorically condemned. In spite of this most Sëfâ literature of the Persian and Indian origin insists on annihilation of the "self" and renunciation of all material objects for attaining the Pleasure of God and attaining His proximity. The "self" is mistakenly taken to be an equal of and contender with God, which must be eliminated for attaining His Ma`rifat and proximity. The concept that the "self" was a potential gift of God which could be used profitably, through suitable training and discipline to obtain the best of both worlds remained foreign to their intellects. ‘All«mah Iqb«l realized this and has clearly stated that the present degenerated condition of the Muslim Ummah was in the greatest measure due to distancing itself from the efforts to develop the "self " in the service of God and Man. A little study of and contemplation on the two books discussed here would show that the concept of Khudâ is closer to Islam than that of Fatalism. This matter has been discussed by specialists in Iqb«lics and may be studied by those anxious to do so. Space does not permit giving examples from his works. However, they exist in B«ng-i-Dar« and have been referred to in the translation and commentary at appropriate places.

5. Controversy of `Aql O Dil (Intellect and Heart or Intuition) 'Aql and Dil are used metaphorically for Intellect and Intuition respectively. The controversy of the relative efficacy of these two means of knowing the Truth about the Wujëd (Existence) and the Z«t (Essence) of God and His relationship with the Universe, both material and spiritual, has always existed in human thinking. Search for an acceptable compromise in the controversy of the precedence of one system over the other was one of the aims and purposes of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's life-long fervent struggle in intellectual pursuits. This theme comes up frequently in all his books, including B«ng-i-Dar«. It is, therefore, necessary to clarify his stand in this matter in order to understand such poems. ‘All«mah Iqb«l has used 'Aql, Khirad, D«nish (Intellect), ‘Ilm (Knowledge), Takhmân O Zan (Reasoning and Logical Thinking) synonymously for ways of acquiring the knowledge of the material Universe. The ways depending upon the above faculties are the material ways of experimentation and reasoning. Similarly, he has used Dil, Jigar (Heart), Wajd«n (Intuition, Love of God), Im«n (Faith, Belief in the realities of the Unseen or Transcendental Universe, based on Revelation, i.e. Kashf, Ilh«m, with climax in waéy) synonymously for the means of acquiring knowledge of the spiritual Universe.

Some critics of ‘All«mah Iqb«l have expressed the opinion that there is contradiction in his poetic and prose works regarding the relative role of Intuition and Intellect with respect to Muslims. This apparent contradiction can be resolved by a little contemplation. Firstly, such apparent contradictions are frequent in his writings on other subjects also. In each such case the appreciation for or condemnation of the same object or concept is with reference to the good and bad categories of the same. For example, he has shown very great appreciation and reverence for Sëfâs like Mujaddid Alf Th«nâ (Appendix I, No. 57), ‘Alâ Bin ‘Uthm«n al-Hujwârâ (Appendix I, No. 8) and Mawl«n« Rëmâ (Appendix I, No. 65) and the taÅawwuf they represent. At the same time he has expressed frustration at the people's intellectual slavery to the half baked Sëfâs and Mull«hs "with empty flagons" and devoid of the Longing and Love of God as well as that of humanity. Similarly, he has expressed very great respect as well as disdain for faqr in B«l-i-Jibrâl. This matter has been discussed earlier under Faqr.

Similarly, in the matter of the controversy of Intellect and Intuition he has recognized two different situations in one of which Intellect gets precedence over Intuition and in the other the precedence is reversed. He has also talked about two kinds of Intellect. One of these is acceptable, though it may or may not get precedence over Intuition, and the other is unquestionably detestable. In this context it must be understood that he has set two goals for the Muslim Ummah. One is the immediate but interim goal. This is the renaissance and rejuvenation of the Muslim world and Muslim society so that it may regain its lost position in the world community. Though the dual task of inner reconstruction and outer adjustment to the changed conditions of the present day world, which are the prerequisites for this goal, require Intuition as well as Intellect, the latter has precedence over the former. This is the central theme of his prose book titled "The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam" (Appendix III, No. 27). The second and the more important task before the Ummah and, in fact its very mission, is the establishment and administration of a super-national Divinely guided State, which can be called the Islamic State. The Ummah was created and Divinely commissioned for this purpose, vide The Holy Qur’«n 3:110; 9:32, 33; 48:28; and 61:9, and the Holy Prophet's S.A.W. Sermon at the last pilgrimage (Appendix IV). This forms the theme, and in fact the goal of all his poetic works.

The inner preparation and superb perseverance necessary for achieving this goal is not possible with Intellect alone. It requires the real and ardent Love of God, which is the basis for and is synonymous with Im«n or Intuition. Unswerving belief in and comprehension of the Wujëd as well as the dh«t of God it is essential for developing this inner or spiritual strength, which alone would enable Muslims to make the supreme sacrifices necessary for the attainment of this goal. Out of six qualities stated by Mawl«na Rëmâ, which establish the precedence of Intuition over Intellect the following two stand out as pre-eminent in this respect (Appendix III, No. 1, Chapter V, Love):

i. It is not possible to know the dh«t of the Ultimate Being (God) through Theoretical Reasoning alone. This needs Intuition. "Reason is the Light and Guide, but not the goal", says Rëmâ. ‘All«mah Iqb«l echoes the same sentiment:

(145) The Intellect from the threshold is not far
But it is not destined for the (Divine) Presence
(Appendix III, No. 29)

(146) The end of Intellect is deprivation from Audience with the Essence
Philosophy is synonymous with distancing from the Life’s essence
(Appendix III, No. 32)

(147) Dân the organization of the path of life is
Dân the Secret of Muéammad and Ibr«hâm is
(Appendix III , No. 32)

ii. Intellect is utilitarian and weighs profit and loss before taking a step. Love is not utilitarian. ‘All«mah Iqb«l also confirms this:

The second category of Intellect is the one which has led mankind away from God and into the arms of materialism, capitalism and nationalist-imperialism. The havoc played by the Western nations against defenseless humanity throughout the world over the last three centuries is well known and does not need elaboration. This is the class of Intellect which ‘All«mah Iqb«l considers worthy of condemnation to the gallows. When the ‘All«mah could not tolerate this state of affairs any more he cried out:

Attention is also invited to Appendix III, No. 26, page 27, for a sample of All«mah Iqb«l's views on this category of Intellect. In addition he says:

6. Political Ideology It is not possible to cover the all encompassing political ideology of ‘All«mah Iqb«l in this chapter. I have already outlined some aspects of it earlier. I have briefly described his concept of Dân being the basis of the State. In this chapter I shall go into his thoughts about Waèan (homeland) and Qawm (nationality) as these matters have been discussed in B«ng-i-Dar«. Several other poems are included in this book in which ‘All«mah Iqb«l has expressed his love for India and its past and present heroes, and has shown frustration at the constant strained relations between the Muslims and the Hindus, who formed the two major nations in India. These poems have created some misunderstanding about his political ideology. Opinion has been expressed by some responsible persons that he was initially an Indian nationalist and was only swept away by the "separatist politics of the Muslim League" into what the Indian Hindus call "communalism". The fallacy of this erroneous judgment reflects complete ignorance of his works and thought as well as the basics of Islam.

‘All«mah Iqb«l was a patriot with great admiration for India, its landscapes and its great personalities, both past and present. He sincerely desired, not only political independence for India from Britain, but also its freedom from the economic, cultural and value systems of the West. His earliest poems reflect these ideas. He was also aware of the class based Brahmanic Hindu society and expressed his revulsion for it in poem 126 titled "N«nak" in B«ng-i-Dar«. In this poem he has shown great respect for Gautam Buddha and Guru N«nak for their revolt against the Brahmanic Hindu society, which divides humanity into superior and inferior classes on the basis of birth and lineage. This was contradictory to the Islamic concept of the Unity of mankind (Holy Qur«n 49:13). For Buddha and N«nak see Appendix I, Nos. 29 and 60 respectively.

In spite of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's desire for an independent India, unlike his Hindu compatriots, he was fully alive to the reality that India's independence would always remain a mirage without Hindu-Muslim amity and presentation of an agreed upon united front to Britain. It was also obvious to him that India's independence would be meaningless to the Muslims if they were held as slaves and untouchables in their own land. He could not expect justice and fair play from the society described in the poem "N«nak" mentioned above. With these ends in view he not only preached Hindu-Muslim amity in his poems like poem 43 "Niya Shiw«lah" (The New Temple) in B«ng-i-Dar« but incessantly worked for such amity. He also realized that the under-privileged position of the Indian Muslims in their own country, and the intransigence of the Hindus in coming to an amenable solution with them, was in no small way due to the schisms among Muslims themselves. Consequently, he spent all his poetic and political skills and efforts in reconstructing and consolidating the Muslim political thought and effort and left no stone unturned for uniting Indian Muslims into one solid body by assembling them on the platform of the Muslim League under its banner.

As early as 1911 "The Report on the Census of India 1911" includes reference to a lecture by ‘All«mah Iqb«l on Indian Muslims in which he had urged the creation of a separate Muslim homeland in India as the only guarantee for the preservation of Islam in the subcontinent. At that time he had declared, "All men, and not Muslims alone, are meant for the 'Kingdom of God on Earth', provided they say good-bye to the idols of race and nationality, and treat one another as personalities". This sentence has the rudiments of his thought that the basis for a nation and State could not be geographical boundaries but ideology.

He also realized that before the Muslims could accomplish this task in the present day world the religious thought in the Muslim world itself needed to be reconstructed. He endeavored to do this in his famous book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930) (Appendix III, No. 27). This book, consisting of six lectures delivered by him in Madras and at Aligarh about 1930, was an attempt to reconstruct Muslim religious philosophy with due regard to the philosophical traditions of Islam and the recent developments in human knowledge. This book embodies his mature formulation of moral, social and political philosophy. The important pillars of this thought are:

(i) Dynamism in thought and action

(ii) Re-shaping the teachings of the Sëfâs on the role of Intuition in the process of acquiring knowledge

(iii) Enunciation of the concept of the Fard-i-K«mil or "The Perfect Man"

(iv) Condemnation of the ascetic sëfism of the kind which preached renunciation of the world as necessary for salvation and

(v) Ijtih«d which had to be collective Ijtih«d so as to reflect the feelings of the whole Muslim Ummah and safeguard its interests.

In a way this book constitutes the basis of his social and political philosophy and mission.

Simultaneously ‘All«mah Iqb«l transcended the bounds of political and religious theory and played an active role in the politics of the Indian subcontinent. He was also very active in the politics of his native province of Punjab as well as in the national field. The landmark contribution of ‘All«mah Iqb«l to the cause of the Muslims and Islam was the first formal presentation of the Pakistan plan in his presidential address to the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930.

In the very beginning of the twentieth century he realized that the secular nationalism of the West as a political thought was contrary to the spirit of Islam. This concept started in Europe as a protest against the combined atrocities of the autocratic "Holy Roman Empire (962-1806)" and the theocracy of the Roman Catholic Church. It has been explained earlier that this movement had resulted from the general awakening in Central Europe during the Reformation and Renaissance, which in its turn had been sparked by the creed of freedom started by the Muslim society in Islamic Spain. It was kept alive later by the British pursuing their policy of "Balance of Power" which was directed against the Napolean's Empire and later the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867-1918) in Europe. Feelings of secular and geographical nationalism were also nurtured and supported in the Christian dominated provinces of the Ottoman Khil«fah to break it up. All these efforts succeeded in Europe. In India, however, the situation was very different. Space does not permit to go into its details, for which reference is invited to ‘Ishrat (1993-94) for details.

During his stay in England and Germany in 1905-08 ‘All«mah Iqb«l realized the evils of secular nationalism and the machinations of Europeans against Muslims and Islam. This, coupled with his vast and deep study of Islam, convinced him of the urgent need for propagating the super-national ideal of Islam. He devoted the rest of his life to achieve this goal. For details of his political philosophy and the evils of secular nationalism as a political philosophy see poem 85 "Wataniyyat" (Nationalism) in B«ng-i-Dar« which appears later in this book and was written during the early period, about 1908.

Thus, ‘All«mah Iqb«l was a patriot but he never accepted secular nationalism as a political philosophy for Muslims. Far from being swayed by the "separatism of the Muslim League" he guided the Muslim intelligentsia and the Muslim League towards the goal of Muslim homeland in the Indian subcontinent. In this homeland an Islamic State was to be established which would be the nucleus for the ultimate creation of a super-national Islamic State or a "League of Islamic Nations". Clearly, his aim was Hindu-Muslim amity to speed up India's independence which would be the precursor of the independence of the Muslim world. Will the Muslims all over the world, and particularly in Pakistan rise up to his expectations or will face his testifying against them on the Day of Judgment (The Holy Qur’«n 2:143).

Explanatory Notes

1. Hegel- See Appendix I, No. 38.

2.Sayyidina ‘¥s« A.S- See Appendix I, No. 44.

3. In our opinion the Islamic civilization would have attained much higher goals than the Western philosophy, science and technology. This is so because of the difference of approach of both. Western science visualizes a universe which has been created by the 'Big Bang' which was just an accident with an unknown cause. The universe and all its animate and inanimate components are operating under a set of immutable physical laws. No purpose or objective is ascribed to their creation or operation and there is no concept of a creator or operator. As opposed to this the Islamic teaching, as already stated earlier, visualizes a universe whose components are interlinked into a rationally organized whole, which has been created by a Creator who is also reigning over it and operating it. It is not eternal but ephemeral and will be abolished or changed into another completely different universe. ‘All«mah Iqb«l hints at this thought as follows:

(152) Why should I ask the wise men as to what is my beginning
As I am always concerned as to what my destiny is !

(153) If that Western sage had been alive at this time
Iqb«l would have shown to him what God's status is
— The famous German philosopher Nietzsche
(Appendix III, No. 29)

Though the universe is operating under a set of rules, usually unchanging, the Creator has the power and the authority of making changes in its operation. Such changes are called miracles. The Holy Qur’«n has many verses about one or more of the above attributes of God. However, verse 2:255 is a very comprehensive one. According to the Holy Qur'«n only Man out of the creation of God is endowed with free will and ethical feelings which give him the understanding of the difference between right and wrong. God has provided complete guidance to the whole human race through Divine revelations and the efforts of His good men whose life and work are the beacons of light for the guidance of mankind on the path of righteousness. An important part of the Qur'«nic concept is the Last Day when this universe, as we know it, will be changed into something very different and all mankind will be called upon to explain their deeds during their life on earth. This accountability is a direct and logical result of the free will and guidance provided to Man. This concept of accountability is the core concept of all religions, including the final and most highly evolved religion, i.e. Islam. Love of God and the love of mankind is also an essential component of religion. The Holy Qur'«n appeals repeatedly to mankind to understand the signs of God in the Universe and in Man himself as proof of the existence of a Supreme Being, i.e. God and to follow the path of righteousness to win His pleasure. That is the real ‘Ib«dah of God. The Holy Qur'«n goes a step further to establish and maintain the dignity of the human race by designating him the masterpiece of God's creation. In this capacity he is restrained from showing allegiance to any person, object, phenomenon or ideology, because they are all created like Man. Man being the masterpiece of creation is prohibited from bowing to or showing allegiance to any one except God. All systems, secular or religious which require, or even permit Man's allegiance to other created objects are a bane to humanity. The Godless Western system also requires Man's allegiance, however subtle, to sources of material gain. In that respect it drags down the human race from its elegant status of the masterpiece of creation to one of subservience to all and sundry. ‘All«mah Iqb«l has presented this concept in the following two very eloquent verses:

(154) This one prostration which to you irksome is
Freedom to Man from a thousand prostrations is !
( Appendix III, No.32)

(155) Only that prostration worthy of respect is
Which denying all other prostrations to you is
(Appendix III, No. 29)

It is obvious from the foregoing that if the Muslim civilization had continued on its original path it would have succeeded in establishing a civilization much superior in knowledge, science and technology to any we know. Above all this civilization would have elevated Man to the position he deserved.

4. Aémad This is another name of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. . Another view is that this is an allusion to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindâ, Mujaddid Alf Th«nâ.

5. P«zand This is the name of the holy book of the Parsâs .

6. L« Il«ha This is the abbreviation for the Muslim Kalimah- i-tawéâd, i.e. "La Il«ha Illall«h u Muéammad al- Rasël Allah".

7. Khaibar's Conqueror with Barley's Bread This alludes to ‘Alâ R.A., his conquest of the Jewish Fort of Khaibar and the fact that he used to eat bread of barley for lack of money. This did not reduce his prowess or strength. See Appendix I, No. 7.

8. Badr-O-Hunain- These are two very decisive battles in the early history of Islam. Badr was the first battle between the newly formed Muslim Ummah in Madâna Munawwarah and the pagan Quraish. It was critical in that it established the political credibility of Muslims. The battle of Hunain was fought immediately after the conquest of Makkah Mu‘ïïamah. This battle also was decisive in the sense that the Muslims were almost defeated on account of their pride and reliance on their arms and numbers instead of their Faith and the truth of their mission. Ultimately the Muslims won the battle and this completed the sovereignty of the Islamic State over the entire Arabian Peninsula.

9. £usain- Im«m £usain R.A. for whom see Appendix I, No. 39.

10. Masâé- Reference toS. ‘¥s« A.S. for whom see Appendix I, No. 44.

11. Kalâm- Reference to S. Mës« A.S. for whom see Appendix I, No. 48.

12. Shabbâr- This is another name of Im«m Hussain R.A. for whom see Appendix I, No. 39. "Shabbârâ" is his attributes.

13. Namrëd- This alludes to the Holy Qur’«n 21:51-69. Namrëd was the king who is traditionally believed to have ordered the casting of Ibr«hâm A.S. into the fire. According to ‘All«mah ‘Abd Allah Yësuf ‘Alâ (Appendix III, No 8, Note 1565) Namrëd reigned over the tract which includes the 'Namrëd' on the Tigris River, about 32 km. south of Mosul.

14.Waéâd ‘Ishrat (1993-94) Iqb«l aur Jamhëriyat English Translation by M.A.K. Khalâl. Published in Iqb«l Review Vol. 34, No.3, pp.69-104 and Vol.35, No.1; pp 19-60.