29

The names in this appendix are arranged in the alphabetical order of the last or popular name of the biography. These names are underlined. References to literature are those listed in Appendix III.

1. S. Ab� Bakr al-�idd�q R.A. (571-634) - He was the most devoted companion and lieutenant of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) and the first khal�fah of Islam. He was one of the most respected persons, both in the pre-Islamic and Islamic days. He was the first among the grown up to accept Islam. �Whenever I offered Islam to any person, he showed some hesitation before embracing it. But Ab� Bakr is an exception as he embraced Islam without any hesitation on his part�, said the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). He conferred on him the honor of �al-�idd�q� (the truthful; the attesting of Truth). He accompanied the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) in all defensive wars fought by him and remained shoulder to shoulder with him.

His Khil�fah, assumed after the Holy Prophet�s (S.A.W.) death in 632, lasted only for two years and three months. This short period was full of political and social problems confronting the fledgling Islamic State, which he met successfully with his perseverance, courage and Faith. He, thus, preserved the fundamental tenets of Islam at the most critical time of its history. All the expeditions dispatched by him against insurgents were successful and Islam came out victorious against them by 634.

He also started the wars of people�s liberation against the two super-powers of the age, i.e. the Persian and Roman (Byzantine) Empires. Early military actions during his Khil�fah broke the back bone of these tyrant giants to the extent that they were finally demolished in a short period during the Khil�fah of S. �Umar F�r�q R.A., who succeeded him. Glowing tributes have always been paid to his qualities of head and heart by friend and foe alike among historians and scholars. However, what tributes can surpass the following from the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) himself ? :

� I have paid back the obligations of all except those of Ab� Bakr, who will have his reward on the Day of Judgment�.

�All�mah Iqb�l has paid his tribute in Poem 20 ��idd�q�. The incident described in this poem is supported by the first had�th above.

2. S. Ab� Dhar al-Ghaff�r� (d. 653)- He is a well known companion of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). He belonged to the pagan Quraish clan of Ghaff�r, who lived on the Makkah-Syria trade route. They not only lived on robbery but were famous and much dreaded for their brutality and callousness. S. Ab� Dhar had a strange and inexplicable feeling against this mode of life and had a strong yearning for Truth and correct worship of God from his early life. God rewarded him with the wealth of Islam. Conversion to Islam became a complete turning point in his life. He detested material wealth and became an Islamic egalitarian incarnate. He spent all his time in spreading Islam and lived a life of voluntary abject poverty. This mode of life brought him in conflict with the Muslim society during the Khil�fah of S. �Uthm�n R.A. especially at the hands of S. Mu�wiyyah, who was then governor of Syria, where S.Ab� Dhar had gone to admonish the people against their opulence and arrogance. Eventually he has summoned to Mad�nah Munawwarah by the khal�fah and later exiled to Rabzah, a small village near Madina, where he died. It must be remembered that his poverty was voluntary and kept his heart rich with contentment, which is the essence of faqr. �All�mah Iqb�l has paid high tribute to his qualities of faqr in Poem 145. ��ul�-i-Islam ),stanza 4, verse 5.

3. S. �dam (A.S.) (Adam of the Holy Bible)- He is the first human being and the first prophet for mankind. He and his wife S. Havv�h (A.S.) were created by God by His Will. His creation, status and transfer from paradise to earth are described in the Holy Qur��n 2:30-39; 7:11-25. The attribute which made him superior to angels was his capacity to acquire knowledge (The Holy Qur��n 2:31). This has been explained further in Chapter 3 and 4. �All�mah Iqb�l has mentioned him at several places in this and other books.

4. Qu�b al-D�n Aibak (Reigned 1206-10)- He was one of the group of intelligent slaves whom Sul�n Shih�b al-D�n Ghaur�, the founder of the Ghaur� Dynasty, had given good education and military training. Aibak was appointed governor of Sul�n�s Indian empire and was posted in Lahore. Later he conqured Delhi in 1206 and declared his independence from the Ghauri Dynasty after the death of Shih�b al-D�n Ghaur�. He made the Muslim rule in India an independent country of which Delh� was the capital.

5. Saiyyid Akbar �usain, Akbar All�h�b�d� (1846-1921) - He was an eminent Urdu poet of the Indian sub-continent. He was a jurist by profession and worked as a judge till his retirement. Like �All�mah Iqb�l his object as a poet was to reform the Muslim society of his country. For this purpose he adopted humorous style in his poetry for which he is famous and popular among Muslims. He covered all social, economic and political problems of his age and made effective use of sarcasm and satire to communicate his thoughts.

6. Alexander (356-323 B.C.) He is the famous Greek king, son of Philip of Macedonia and pupil of Aristotle. He reigned from 336 to 323 B.C. He is considered to be the most celebrated conqueror of the ancient world. After conquering Egypt (332 B.C.) and founding Alexandria (331 B.C.) he invaded Persia, which was the largest, most powerful and richest empire of the age. He defeated the Persian king, Darius III (ca. 333-330 B.C.), at Issus (333 B.C.) and finally at Arbella (331 B.C.). After this he overran the Punjab in the Indian sub-continent (327-325 B.C.) where he fought with and defeated king Porus. He died in 323 B.C.

Though Alexander is a hero to Europeans and the Western world, who wax eloquence in his praise, he is remembered in Asia as a cruel and ravaging conqueror. �All�mah Iqb�l himself has equated him with a pirate in his short poem, titled �Aek Ba�r� Qazz�q aur Sikandar� (A Pirate and Alexander). See verses 206-208 in Explanatory note 4 in poem 128, � Bil�l � and in appendix V .

7. S. ��l� (R.A.) He was the cousin and son-in-law of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) and the fourth Divinely guided Khal�fah. He was endowed with unsurpassable qualities of the body, mind and soul. His chivalry earned him the title of �Sher-i-Khud�� (the Lion of God) and is famous for many deeds of chivalry, courage and strength in warfare. The most famous is the breaking of the gate of the fort of Khaibar in the armed encounter of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) with the Jews who had assembled there and were accumulating war material and were conducting mischievous manipulations against Islam. His courage is exemplified by his sleeping in the bed of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) in the night of the latter�s departure on migration to Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah. He participated in every battle with the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) except the Tub�k Expedition, when he was kept in Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah under the Holy Prophet�s (S.A.W.) orders. He became Khal�fah at the most stormy period of Islamic history. These consisted of internal dissensions as well as external dangers. He overpowered all difficulties with exceptional courage, sound judgment and exemplary accommodation.

His intellectual capabilities won him the attributes of �the greatest intellectual� being among the companions of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) and � the father of Islamic learning�. as well as the title of �gate of the store-house of intellectual learning� from the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) himself. He was also the greatest jurist of Islam and is credited with the consolidation of Islamic jurisprudence to the largest extent. He was a literateur of Arabic and is famous for his poetry and his book �Nahj al-Bal�ghah�.

In spite of all accomplishments he was very humble and kind-hearted and his handling of his own property and that of the Bait al-M�l in the service of the poor and the needy is exemplary. The celebrated scholar of Islam, Sh�h Wal� Allah says in �z�lat al-Khif�; �Chivalry and strength of character, humanity and sincerity which are the attributes of character of great men, were possessed in abundance by S. �Al� �.

8. �Al� Bin �Uthm�n al- Hujw�r� D�t� Ganj Bakhsh R.A. (1010-ca. 1097)- He was born near Ghazn�, and migrated to Lahore under instructions from his mentor, Shaikh Ab� al-Fa�l Mu�ammad, during the reign of Sult�n Ma�m�d of Ghazn� (reigned 999-1031) some time between 1031 and 1040, and stayed there till his death. He spent all this time in propagating Islam and reforming ta�awwuf, and was successful in both. He was the first and the most eminent scholar and s�f� of the Indian sub-continent. His most important achievement is purification of Islamic ta�awwuf by freeing it from the impurities of Greek and Persian thought. He used his sermons and writings for this purpose. He has written several books in Persian, of which Al-Kashf al-Ma�j�b (The Revelation of the Veiled) is the most famous. The remaining seven are mentioned in it. This is the first book written in Persian on ta�awwuf and has been liked immensely by scholars since the beginning. It was translated into English by the orientalist Reynold A. Nicholson in 1911, who says about the book, �This is the book which acquainted the inhabitants of the Indian sub-continent with Islamic ta�awwuf for the first time�. Through his generosity he earned the honor of being known as D�t� Ganj Bakhsh (The Bestower of Treasures). �All�mah Iqb�l had great reverence for Al-Hujw�r� and visited his mausoleum frequently throughout his life to pay respects. He has talked about the Shaikh frequently in his works.

9. Mu�ammad Ibn �Al� Al-Sann�s� (d. 1859) - He is a famous religious leader who was born and lived in Libya. He was educated at Fez in Morocco and at Makkah Mu�a��amah. He established the Sannusiyya S�f� order in 1837, which spread and had a network of local centers in the oases of Cyrenaican desert by 1871. The order played an important role in opposing the Italian occupation of Libya in 1912. The title of Sannusi applies to any member of this class. The founder of the order is referred to in the introduction to Poem 101. �Hu��r-i-Ris�lat Ma��b Men� [In Audience with the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.)]. The latter is referred to in Poem 147-29.

10. S. Yam�n al- Dawlah Am�r Khusrou (1253-1325) - He is considered to be among the pillars of Persian prose and poetry and had good knowledge of music which made his poetry very melodious. He was born and lived in India, but his works are popular in Afghanistan, Russia and Ir�n also. He was equally popular among the Slave Kings, Khilj� and Tughlaq. In addition to Persian he also wrote verse in the vernacular of North India, which are considered as specimens of early Urdu when this language had just been created but was not known by that name. At that time it was called Raikht� and was a mixture of Persian and Hindi, which was one of the dialects of Sanskrit. In Persian one meaning of Raikht� is mixed. This shows that the language was a mixture of Persian and Hindi in which the two languages were distinctly separate and had not become mixed yet. Am�r Khusrou was one of the architects of this language and his genius lies in doing that more successfully than others. He is also famous for devotional poetry in which the Love of God is described in a uniquely beautiful style. He was a prolific writer and has left 22 books, of which the D�w�n, Sh�r�n-O-Khusrou and Laila-O-Majn�n are the more famous ones. The last two were written in response to the books of the same name by Na�m� Ganjw�. �All�mah Iqb�l liked Am�r Khusrou immensely and has included the latter�s verses in Zub�r-i-�Ajam and Armagh�n-i-�ij�z . There is a great deal of parallelism between the ghazals of Am�r Khusrou and the poems of �All�mah Iqb�l.

11. Sir Thomas W. Arnold (1864-1933) He was an intellectual and eminent orientalist of his time. Among the five eminent faculty members of the Universities of Cambridge and London mentioned by Sir �Abd al- Q�dir in his preface to B�ng-i-D�r� Sir Thomas Arnold exerted the greatest influence on the education of �All�mah Iqb�l and in molding his thought and actions. Arnold started his academic career in India in 1888 as Professor of Philosophy at the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental Collage, Al�garh. Here he did invaluable work for Muslim education in addition to teaching and was himself very much influenced by his association with the luminaries of the time like Sir Saiyyid Ahmad Kh�n, Mawl�n� Khw�jah Al�f Husain ��l� and Mawl�n� Sh�bl� Nu�m�n�. On the death of Sir Saiyyid Ahmad Khan in 1898 Arnold move to Government College, Lahore as Professor of Philosophy. �All�mah Iqb�l came in contact with him here when he was working for his B.A. and M.A. degrees. Arnold�s interests were many, among which religion, art and oriential philosophy were very prominent. Though he was not a Muslim his love and respect for Islam is evidenced by the fact that he used to lecture on Islam in Islamic dress. After his return to England in 1904 he worked in the India Office Library (1904-21), Lecturer in Arabic at the University College, London, and Chairman, Department of Arabic at the precursor of the present School of Oriental and African Studies, London (1904-30).

(Source : Iqb�l Review : Journal of the Iqb�l Academy Pakistan 32 (1), pp. 1-92).

12. �ahm�sp Qul� Baig, Mull� �Arsh� Yazd� (d. 1581)- He was born at Tabr�z, Ir�n and was a pupil of Wa�sh� Baf�q�. Later he emigrated to Yazd. Though he died young he left ten thousand verses. However, a son was born to him who was ugly. He produced a verse ex-tempore which appears as the last verse of Poem 105. �T��l�m Awr Us Kay Nat��ij� (Education and Its Consequences). �All�mah Iqb�l has used this verse to convey the message that the Western education cannot fulfill the needs of the Muslim Ummah. Consequently, we should sow new seed.

13. �zar- He was the father of S. Ibr�h�m (A.S.) - He was a proficient stone sculptor and used to make stone idols which were worshipped in the temples of Ur of Chaldea. He is referred to by �All�mah Iqb�l in paying tribute to S. Ibr�h�m (A.S.) in that the latter remained a true Believer in spite of being the son and ward of an idolater. In Poem 88 Shakwah �All�mah Iqb�l condemns the present day Muslims for being idol worshipers in spite of being the progeny of true Believers, unlike S. Ibr�h�m (A.S.) who was a true Believer in spite of being the son of an idolater.

14. S. �aif�r Ibn Is� B�yaz�d Bis�m� (R.A.) (777-874)- He was born in Bis�m, which is a village between Tehr�n and Nishap�r in Ir�n. He left home at the age of ten years in search of knowledge of ta�awwuf and is said to have met and benefited from three hundred suf�s.

His period belongs to the time when the Greek philosophy had been accepted and liked by Muslim scholars. For reasons explained elsewhere B�yaz�d struggled hard to wean Muslim scholars away from Greek philosophy. He rejected the argument of Greek philosophy to make Intellect as a guide in comprehending God. He made the Love of God as his guide in comprehending the same. We have discussed the relative values of Intellect and Love in Chapter 3, under � The Controversy between � �Aql-O-Dil�.

S. B�yaz�d Bis�m� R.A. is one of the most favorite s�f�s of �All�mah Iqb�l. This reverence is based on two attributes of B�yaz�d Bis�m� R.A., i.e. Faqr and Love of God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W.

Similarly he has paid high tributes to Bis�m� for his love of God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W. To �All�mah Iqb�l the message of Love is the main reason for his entire works and struggle in his intellectual career. Examples of this Love abound in all his works and we have cited them at appropriate places in the commentary and in Chapter 3 under �The Controversy between �Aql-O-Dil�. The latter discussion is also a comparative evaluation of Intellect and Im�n as guide in comprehension of the Existence and Essence of God.

(Source : Appendix III, No. 49, pp. 12-23)

15. Ab� al-M��l� Mirz� �Abd al-Q�dir Bedil �A��m�b�d� (d. 1721) - He is an eminent Persian poet of the Indian sub-continent. He lived at his birth place, �A��m�b�d, Patna for a great part of his life. Later he moved to Delh� and stayed there till his death. He was unequaled in his time in delicacy of composition, incisiveness, elegance of thought and description of Divine and Spiritual truths. His disposition was spiritual and philosophical. Beside supporting the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ��lamg�r, (1618-1707, reigned 1658-1707) on some policies and conquests he neither supported nor criticized any political personality of his age. In spite of being cool to some of Bedil�s difficult to understand style �All�mah Iqb�l appreciated his thought and art. Among the subjects covered by Bedil in his verse �All�mah Iqb�l had special appreciation for Love, large heartedness and beni�z�. There is much concordance between the two in their poetical works.

Abbreviated collections of Bedil�s prose and poetry have been published periodically in the Indian sub-continent but his complete works in four voluminous books have been published in Afghanistan during 1962-65. During the same period valuable research has been conducted on him in the Persian speaking region comprised of portions of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Russia.

16. Henri Bergson (1859-1941) - He was a French philosopher. His philosophy rests on the liberation of mental intuitions from the idea of space and the scientific notion of time as well as in the affirmation of a creative life-force.

17. S. Bil�l Ibn Rab�� (R.A.) (582-642) - He was of Abyssinian origin. Very early in his life he became a slave of Umayyah Bin Khalaf, Chief of the Jumma tribe of Quraish. Umayyah was one of the fiercest enemies of Islam and vowed to persecute all Muslims. He subjected S. Bil�l to the most cruel persecution imaginable, which included pinning him down to rocks by placing large stones on his chest at the height of the midday sun in the hottest summer season of Makkah Mu�a��amah. Umayyah used to swear to let S. Bil�l die in that condition or renounce Islam and revert to the idolatry of the Quraish. On the other hand, all the persecution failed and S. Bil�l used to swear that he would continue to believe in Islam and always declared �A�ad�, �A�ad�.(God is One and Unique). He was purchased by Ab� Bakr for a heavy price and freed to relieve him from his ordeal. Throughout his life he had the unique honor of being the Mu�adhdhin of Islam. He was an ardent Lover of God, the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) and his family. He was with the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) in every war and fought side by side with him. His zeal for jih�d continued all his life. �All�mah Iqb�l has paid him tribute in several poems, two of which appear in this book, viz., Nos. 37 and 128, both titled �Bil�l�.

18. George Nathaniel, First Marquess Curzon of Kedleston (1859-1925). He was a British Conservative Party statesman. He was Viceroy of India (1899-1905) and Foreign Secretary (1919-24), in which capacity he suggested an ethnic boundary line between Russia and Poland known as Curzon Line (1919). �All�mah Iqb�l humorously refers to his former role in Poem 147-3 and seriously in 147-23.

19. Naw�b Mirz� Kh�n D�gh (1831-1905)- He was a poet par excellence and has always been regarded as one of the last luminaries of classical ghazal in Urdu poetry. He was born at Delhi and was one of the poets at the Mughal Emperors� court there. After the fall of Delhi he migrated to Haider�b�d, Dakkan, where he became the preceptor in poetry to M�r Ma�b�b �Al� Kh�n, Ni�m of Haider�b�d. He lived there till his death. �All�mah Iqb�l was his pupil, though the relationship was short and in-absentia, which has been described in some detail in the preface by Sir �Abd al- Q�d�r. �All�mah Iqb�l wrote his elegy which appears as poem 44 in B�ng-i-Dar� and in this commentary.

20. ��j M�r Saiyyid D�nish Raz� Ra�a Mashhad� (d. 1665)- He was a Persian poet who came from Mashhad in Ir�n to the Indian sub-continent during the reign of the Mughal Emperor, Shih�b al- D�n Sh�hjah�n (1592-1666, reigned 1627-58). After staying for a few years in Haider�b�d, Dakkan and Bengal, he became connected with the courts of Sh�hjah�n and his son, D�r� Shikoh. He was a very competent Persian poet and received royal favors. �All�mah Iqb�l has included one of his verses in the last two verses of Poem 127. �Kufr-O-Isl�m� (Infidelity and Islam).

21. Dante Alighieri (1265- 1321) - He was a great Italian poet of Latin and became famous for his �Divine Comedy� (ca. 1308-1320). This ;book reflects his faith, his love, his great learning and his political and religious views. The allegorical description of his journey through Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory) and Paradiso (Paradise) presents an account of the path of the soul from sin and darkness to purification from the point of view of the Christian Europe�s dark ages. Though the book is regarded as the master piece of medieval Europe I differ from that view. My views are stated in Chapter 3, under �Dante�s influence on �All�mah Iqb�l�.

22. D�r�- D�r� or Darius is the generic name for three Persian kings of the sixth to fourth centuries B.C. Darius I �the Great� (ca. 550-485 B.C.), reigned (521-484 B.C.) reorganized and consolidated the Persian Empire, after extending it up to Egypt and India. Then he invaded Greece but was defeated at Marathon (490 B.C.). Darius II (reigned 424-404 B.C.) was the son of Artaxerexes I. In his time the Persian Empire was weakened by revolts and political intrigues. Darius III (ca. 380-330 B.C.) was the cousin of Artaxerexes III. He was defeated by Alexander of Greece at Issus (333 B.C.) and Arbela (331 B.C.). In Persian and Urdu literature D�r� symbolizes imperial power and glory.

23. Albert Einstein (1879-1955)- He was the greatest scientist of the twentieth century. He was born at Ulm in Germany, but attended high school in Switzerland and became a Swiss citizen in 1900. He obtained Ph.D. from the University of Zurich in 1905. His earlier work, on which he earned Ph.D. degree, was on Brownian movements and photo-electricity. However, he earned his reputation from the theory of special relativity (1905) and theory of general relativity (1915). The latter theory is based on the premise that gravitational effects are not created by physical forces in the normal sense of the word, but result from the space�s curvature itself. This was truly astonishing. This theory is distinctly different from other scientific theories in that it was not derived from any planned experiments but by elegant and complex mathematics, which was later proved by subsequent phenomena. �All�mah Iqb�l has referred to Einstein�s work several times in his famous �Lectures� ( Appendix III, No. 27). In Poem 38. �Sarguzasht-i-�dam� (The Adventures of Man) he has alluded to the general theory of relativity and its effect on the nature of gravity and the spherical nature of space, which are considered to be astounding discoveries. In this poem reference is also made to the fact that the operation of the entire universe is based on gravity.

24. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82) - He was an American philosopher, essayist and poet. His philosophy is known as transcendentalism. He laid much stress on intellectual freedom, integrity, self reliance and realism. His best known essays are: �Self Reliance� (1841), �Compensation� and �The Over Soul� (1846), �English Traits� (1856) and �The Conduct of Life� (1860).

25. King Fai�al I (1885-1933)- He was the first king of Ir�q (1921-33). As a part of the settlement of the Arab lands which seceded from the �Uthm�niya Khil�fah at the end of World War I the British made him king of Ir�q. �All�mah Iqb�l refers to him in his Poem 147-29, alluding to his treason to the Khil�fah.

26. Shaikh Ab� al-Fai� Fai�� Faya�� Akbar�b�d� (d. 1596)- He was a well known scholar of Persian, Arabic and Islamic learning. He, his father and younger brother Abu al-Fa�l ��ll�m� (d. 1603) were among the �nine jewels� of the court of the Mughal Emperor Jal�l al-D�n Akbar (1542-1605, reigned 1156-1605). He was the Poet Laureate of Akbar�s court (1588-96). Among his books the most famous are two mathnav�s, titled Markaz-i-Adw�r and Nal Daman; Saw��i �al-Ilh�m (A Commentary on the Holy Qur��n in which he has no word which has a letter with a dot- an enviable attainment ) and some Persian translations of Sanskrit books.

�All�mah Iqb�l has used only one verse of Fai�� in Poem 121. �Tahdh�b-i-��ir�. (The present Day Civilization), and appears to have based his starting verses of the Poem titled �M�l�d-i-�dam� (Appendix III, No. 24) on Faidi�s verse. This shows �All�mah�s lack of appreciation for Fai��, which could be due to the latter�s views about Islam.

27. Mu�ammad Ibn Mu�ammad Ibn Tarakh�n Na�r F�r�b� (Latin : Alpharabius) (870-950)- He is one of the greatest giants of the intellectual world of the middle ages. He was born at F�r�b in Turkist�n. After obtaining his early education in F�r�b and Bukh�rah he settled in Baghd�d where he lived for 40 years (901-42). His intellectual interests were philosophy, music and poetry. After traveling through Damascus and Egypt he settled down in �alab (Aleppo) where he lived till his death. There he received the patronage of Hamanite ruler Saif al-Dawlah and stayed at his court along with another intellectual, Mutanabb� (Ab� �ayyib A�mad Bin Al �usain Al-Mutanabb� (915-55).

He had full command over Arabic, Greek, Hebrew, Persian and Turkish languages but could speak another 65. He was a s�f� but was a genius and had encyclopedic knowledge of philosophy, logic, politics, occult sciences, sociology, psychology, political science, metaphysics, mathematics and medical science. He was a prolific writer and left over a hundred books, out of which only 15-20 exist, including several treatises on Plato and Aristotle�s theories.

His most memorable contribution to sociology is titled Ris�lah f� �r� Ahl al-Mad�nah al-F��ilah (Epistle on the Opinions of the People of the Superior City), which provided the material for Ibn al-Khald�n�s Muqaddimah (Prolegomena). His famous book on oriental music is titled Kit�b Maws�q� al-Kab�r (The Great Book on Music). He is well known as a commentator of Aristotle which earned him the title of Mu�allim al- Th�n� (The Second Preceptor), the first being Aristotle himself. He was basically a metaphysicist and a s�f� and his deductive system combined with the inductive system of Zakariyah R�z� (865-925), who was his contemporary, constituted the complete Islamic scientific system.

The period of fifth to tenth centuries is considered the �dark ages� of Europe, when the populace was struggling for light under the heel of the theocratic political system of the Papacy, the Holy Roman Empire and other autocratic monarchs. F�r�b� is one of the shining stars of the galaxy of Muslim scholars who imbibed, improved and elaborated the Greek learning and adorned it with Qur��nic thought, which provided the material for the Reformation and Renaissance movements of Europe. His works have been translated into Latin and other European languages and form the bridge between the enlightenment of Spain and Ir�q and the darkness of medieval Europe.

He interpreted numerous dogmas and religious concepts and offered rational explanations of such intricate thoughts as prophecy, inspiration, heavens, destiny and the �Arsh. He is considered as the founder of philosophical theology, which was later explained more fully by Fakhr al- D�n R�z�.

Among the Western philosophers influenced by F�r�b� the better-known ones are : Robert Kilwardley (d. 1279), Raimundo Lull (d. 1315), Simon Tunstedo (1300-69) and Adam de Fuldo. His ideas and teachings led to the philosophies of Kant, Spencer, Bergson and Rousseau. �All�mah Ibn Khald�n, the well known historian says, �No Muslim ever reached in the philosophical sciences the same rank as al-F�r�b�, and it was by the study of his writings and by the imitation of his style that Ibn S�n� attained proficiency and rendered his own work so useful�.

�All�mah Iqb�l has referred to al- F�r�b� in his long poem 145. ��ul�-i-Isl�m (The Renaissance of Islam). in which he says that �the renaissance of Islam is so much shrouded in Divine mystery that even a scholar of al-F�r�b�s caliber cannot understand it�.

28. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)- He is the great Italian scientist who is one of the pioneers of Renaissance and present day science. He was born at Pisa where he studied and later taught at the University of Padua. He conducted most of his investigations there. Though he is credited with several basic discoveries in Mechanics his most important discoveries, which are also relevant here, are in astronomy, and concern the moon, planets and the milky way. He revived Copernicus� heliocentric theory in opposition to the earlier held geocentric theory of Aristotle. The Christian Church was so much under the influence of Greek philosophy that the latter�s precepts, including geocentricity, were considered as part of the Christian Faith. Hence, Galileo�s re-statement of Copernicus� theory of heliocentricity brought him in conflict with the Roman Catholic Church. This theory was explained in his book �The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems�, published in 1632, which was against the prohibition of 1616 issued by the Roman Catholic Church. This angered the Church. He was brought to trial before the Inquisition in Rome, and was given the punishment of house arrest and retraction of his theory. He had to comply with both. He is the first European scientist to introduce experimentation, with measurements and calculations as the basis for formulation of theories rather than acceptance of the opinions of previous scholars or the Church. �All�mah Iqb�l refers to this aspect of Galileo�s work in his poem 38. �Sarguzasht-i-�dam� (The Adventures of Man).

29. Sidharta Gautam Buddha (563-483 B.C.)- He is the founder of Buddhism, one of the great religions of the world. He was the son of a king and was born at Kapilvastu, (at present in the State of Bih�r in India). He was married at the age of sixteen and had a son. Though he was living in luxury he was being constantly tortured by suffering in the world, which afflicted all people in some way, rich or poor. Ultimately, everybody ended in death. He was determined to find the secret of this suffering. For that purpose he abandoned all his material wealth and family and left his home. He obtained education from the existing masters of religious knowledge and even became an ascetic. However, he did not find any solution to his problem in either ways. After much meditation he found the solution. He then set out to propagate his thoughts throughout India. His religion can be summarized as comprising the following four principles:

4. The method of escape from selfishness and greed is the adoption of the right views, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindedness and right meditation.

One natural corollary of the importance of suppressing selfishness and greed is the abolition of the caste system, which divides humanity into privileged and un-privileged classes. This aspect of Buddhism appealed most to �All�mah Iqb�l on account of its being in concordance with the Islamic principles of the unity and equality of mankind, or �Taw��d-i-Ins�niyat�. After the third century B.C. Buddhism spread throughout India and went south as far as Ceylon (the present Sri Lanka), in the east to the whole of South-East Asia and Japan, in the north to Tibet, China, Central Asia and in the west into Afghanistan. However, after the decline of the Mauriya Dynasty, who were its main protagonists, the caste-ridden Hindus, committed un-imaginable atrocities on Buddhists in the Indian sub-continent on account of which Buddhism started to decline about the year 500 and all but disappeared by 1200. However, it established and flourished in other countries, notably Ceylon, Burma, Malaysia, Tibet, China, Korea and Japan. This fact is effectively and forcefully brought out by �All�mah Iqb�l in poem 126 �N�nak� in B�ng-i-Dar�.

30. Theophile Gautier (1811-72)- He was a French poet, journalist and novelist. His book of best verse is titled �Emaux et Came�es� (1852). (Source : No. 37, p. 394).

31. Mirz� Asad Allah Kh�n Gh�lib (1797-1869)- He is a famous Urdu and Persian poet of India and lived and practiced poetry at the court of the last Mughal Emperor, Bah�dur Sh�h �afar. He has traced his origins to a noble Tatar family of Transoxiana in Central Asia. He was married to a lady of noble ruling family of Loh�r�. In spite of noble origin Gh�lib was born at a very unfavorable time when the politico-economic conditions of Muslim society and rule in India were at their lowest level. After ruling India for a thousand years Muslim rule existed in name only and the British power had gained suzerainty. Under these circumstances Gh�l�b had a hard life and had to struggle very hard for survival and intellectual success. Financially, his sources of the meagre income from the Mughal Court at Delhi and the court of Awadh kings at Lucknow ceased when the last Awadh king, W�jid �Al� Sh�h, was deposed and arrested in 1855 by the British, and Delhi fell to the British after the First War of Indian Independence in 1857. Socially and intellectually he was equally miserable. All his near and dear ones perished in the war, the Imperial city of Delhi was in ruins and the literary gatherings at the Red Fort vanished. Even during his stay at the Mughal Court Gh�lib had a very hard time, mainly because of the petty court intrigues which were very prevalent at that time. However, in spite of all this he came out as the best poet of all times. The most important attributes of his poetry are originality of thought and expression, similes and metaphors and diction.

These conditions deeply affected Gh�lib which is reflected in his verse as well as prose, and in his letters. However, he maintained his self respect and bore all these calamities cheerfully. According to Coleridge �No poet can ascend the summit of greatness, unless he has a deep insight into philosophy�. Though Gh�lib was first a poet he was also a philosopher as is evidenced by his poetry. Many intellectuals have compared Gh�lib with other Eastern and Western poets but perhaps the best tribute has been paid by �All�mah Iqb�l by comparing him with Goethe in his poem 4. �Mirz� Gh�lib�, and placing him in paradise together with Hussain Bin Mans�r Hall�j (858-922) Appendix III , No. 54). He has also used Gh�lib�s Urdu and some Persian verses in his poems.

32. Mullah Mu�ammad �hir Ghan� K�shm�r� (d. 1668)- He is a Persian poet of Kashmir and is considered to be high ranking. He was a s�f� and lived in Kashmir all his life, except for a short period in central India. There is very little reflection of his poetry in �All�mah Iqb�l�s poetry, but the latter�s respect for him is evidenced by inclusion of a verse of his in poem 97. �Kh��b ba Jaw�n�n-i-Islam (Address to the Youth of Islam) and by detailed mention in J�v�d N�mah (The Book of Eternity) and Pay�m-i-Mashriq (The Message of the East). In the former Ghani is shown as wailing before the famous Islamic preacher S. M�r Saiyyid �Al� Hamad�n� (d. 1471) about the treachery of the British in selling Kashmir to Gulab Singh.

33. Im�m Ab� H�mid al-Ghaz�l�. Western name �Algazel� (1058-1111)- He is one of the greatest thinkers of the world. He was born at ��s in Khur�s�n.. His father was a yarn seller (in Arabic �Ghaz�l��), from which he got the popular name �Ghaz�l��. In the prosperous and well educated Muslim society of that period education was easy and within reach of even the poorest students, with the help of the State and private philanthropists. Im�m Ghaz�l�, though coming from a very poor and illiterate, family could get education that way. He received education successively at ��s, Jarj�n and Nesh�p�r where he had the distinction of being a pupil of Im�m al-�aramain. At that time Nesh�p�r and Baghd�d were two most important centers of learning in the eastern part of the Islamic world. Nesh�p�r had Madrasah-i-Bakiath which was the first University in the Islamic world. By the age of 28, when his preceptor died, he had acquired enough knowledge to be rendered unequaled in the Islamic world and his reputation spread far and wide. He traveled to Baghd�d and attended the Court of Ni�m al- Mulk ��s�, the Prime Minister of Malik Shah, one of the Saljuk Sult�ns. There he impressed the Sult�n and his Prime Minister with his knowledge and was appointed the Principal of the famous Ni�miah University of Baghd�d at the young age of 34. Very soon he started feeling tired of the pomp and pageantry of the elite at Baghd�d, which he began to hate. Very soon he discovered that all the existing material systems of acquiring knowledge proved futile in showing him the �Truth�. Ultimately he turned his attention to mysticism as contained in the writings of ��rith al- Mu�sib� and other earlier mystics. As he read their works the Truth dawned on him. He says � I saw plainly that what is most peculiar to them (the s�f�s) cannot be learned from books, but can only be reached by immediate experience, ecstasy and �inward information�. He also studied great mystic saints like S. Junaid (d. 910), Shibl�, and B�yaz�d Bis�m� (777-874). As this also did not satisfy him he realized that mystic knowledge lies more in practice than in precept. He then underwent the different phases of renunciation practiced in mysticism and recorded his experiences in his brilliant work, I�y� al ��l�m., which produced the religious revival brought about in circles hitherto unfriendly to mysticism.

From Baghd�d he moved to Damascus, stayed there for two years and took to meditation in the Grand Mosque of Umaiyyads. To avoid being discovered and honored for his knowledge which might produce pride in him, he left Damascus and roamed about in the Islamic world, going to Jerusalem, where he visited the tomb of S. Ibr�h�m A.S. and took mystic vows. He went for pilgrimage and stayed in the �ij�z for a long time. He also went to Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt. He turned down the repeated requests of the Abbaside khal�fahs and Salj�k kings to return to their countries and resume teaching. However, he continued teaching at his home town till his death.

He wrote extensively on logic, physics and metaphysics. The Christian world came to know of his knowledge through translation into Latin and other European languages, many of which were made at Toledo in Islamic Spain. According to Alfred Guillaume �The Christian West became acquainted with Aristotle by way of Avicenna, al-F�r�b� and al-Ghaz�l�. �Gundisalvus�s Encyclopaedia of Knowledge� relies in the main on the information he has drawn from Arabian sources�.

Im�m Ghaz�l� is surely one of the greatest thinkers of Islam whose books have immensely contributed to the social, cultural, political, ethical and metaphysical outlook in Islam. His works greatly influenced prominent thinkers and writers who followed him, the best known of which are : R�m�, Shaikh al-Ashr�q, Ibn Rushd, Sh�h Wal� Allah, �A��r, S��d�, ��fi� and �Ir�q�. The thoughts of these scholars on prophethood, wa�y, ilh�m, resurrection, life after death, Qa�-O-Qadr, and evil and good are based on those emanating from the Ghaz�l�s fountain of knowledge.

Im�m Ghaz�l� lived in one of the dark periods of Muslim history. Political decay had started in the Muslim world. The Khil�fah in Baghd�d had become weak and several other kings in Asia and Africa had declared independence. In Khur�s�n, where Im�m Ghaz�l� lived, the internecine wars between the three sons of Malik Shah wreaked a heavy toll on human life and property and laid many cities desolate. The Khil�fah at Baghd�d was deteriorating and losing political power. All classes and levels of society were entangled in moral and ethical decline. The political power of Muslims in Spain was declining. Under these conditions Im�m Ghaz�l� took upon himself the responsibility of reviving Islamic values in the poeple�s conscience, to bring the weaknesses of each class and level of society to its members and reform them, to create true Love of God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W. so as to bring them back into the Islamic fold and to fuse them together into the body politic of Islam. In this respect Mawl�n� Jal�l al-D�n R�m� and �All�mah Iqb�l were cosharers with him in that they had to face the same kinds of problems and they also solved them in the same way. In a way Im�m Ghaz�li was a pioneer in the task of reforming the Muslim society in difficult times. His example was a guiding light to Mawl�n� R�m� and �All�mah Iqb�l as I have shown Chapter 3 and elsewhere in this appendix. He performed this difficult task through his books, sermons and direct approach to the different levels of society. He also successfully completed the task of purifying Islamic thought from the incrustation of Greek and Zoroastrian thoughts which were dimming its light. In short Im�m Ghaz�l� is an eminent faq�h, preacher with ability for ijtih�d, s�f�, writer on the philosophy and ethics of Islam whose revivalist achievements endowed Muslims with a new life to face the problems of all times to come.

34. Sult�n Ma�m�d Ghaznav� (969-1030)- He was the eldest son of Sul�n Subuktag�n and ascended the throne in 999 after his father�s death. He was a capable and enlightened ruler and was fired with the zeal for establishing the rule of God wherever possible. After expanding his kingdom extensively in Central Asia he made preparations for conquering India and eliminating infidelity there. With this aim he made 17 invasions on India of which the more famous ones are :

Battle with the Hindu confederacy of the rulers of Punjab, Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalanjar, Qanauj, Delhi and Ajmer (1008)

Second battle with the confederacy of Hindu rulers and reconquest of the places he had conquered earlier but had restored them to their rulers on promise of keeping peace (1018),

Ghaznav�s motives are often questioned. The discussion of this is too long for this note but details are available in the sources cited later. However, there is consensus on his being a capable and enlightened ruler. He built Ghazn� into a magnificent capital which earned the title of �the queen of the East� and its Grand Mosque that of �Bride of Heaven�. He constructed the infrastructure which proved very useful for administration and development of the empire. He was also a great patron of art and learning and gathered in his court a galaxy of scholars like the encyclopaedist �Ab� Ri�n al-B�r�n�, the philosopher musical theorist F�r�b�, the philosopher linguist Anūr�, poets Man�chehr�, Asjad� and Firdaws�. The Sh�hn�mah of Firdaws� is counted among the greatest epic poems of the world.

Ma�m�d had a very intelligent slave, named Ay�z, who earned his favors for his capabilities. This and the elimination of idolatry made Ma�m�d one of �All�mah Iqb�l�s favorites. He is mentioned in several poems for these attributes, such as No. 88 �Shakwah� (The Complaint) and No. 146-6.

35. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)- He is a famous German poet, dramatist and novelist. His command of arts, literature, science and philosophy earned him the title of �the last of the great universal men�. He much improved the German language and freed it from all foreign influences. He is famous for his play �Faust� (1808), which is considered to be his masterpiece. He was very much patronized by the Court of Weimar where he lived from 1796 to 1829. �All�mah Iqb�l refers to him and his resting place at Weimar in his poem 4. �Mirz� Gh�lib�.

36. Mawl�n� Khw�jah Al�f Hussain ��l� (1837-1914)- He is one of the greatest personalities in Urdu literature. He was an eminent poet and prose writer, historian, literary critic and social reformer. Being a pupil of Gh�lib led to his greatness as a poet. Living mostly at Delhi and Al�garh he was one of the most sincere and ardent associates of Sir Saiyyid A�mad Khan. After the catastrophe of 1857 both the Mughal Court in Delhi and the Awadh Court in Lucknow disappeared and with them disappeared the literary life of northern India. ��l� and Mawl�n� Mu�ammad �usain �z�d, who was his contemporary were influenced by the effect of renaissance of the 16th century and romanticism of the 18th century Western literature. This led to a reform movement in Urdu literature, headed by ��l�. He freed Urdu poetry from conventionalism and extended its scope to other class of poetry, such as mathnavi and marthiyah (elegy) and introduced many fields of human life into it, such as history, biography, social reform etc.

He wrote the first book on literary criticism, known as Muqaddamah-i-Shi�r O Sh��r� (Introduction to Poetry), which is a landmark publication in Urdu literature. This book led to the reform of Urdu language in the directions stated above. His long poem, Musaddas-i-��l� or Madd O Jazr-i-Islam (The Rise and Fall of Islam) is a masterpiece of Urdu poetry and social reform. It beautifully describes the rise of Islam, the causes of its decline and downfall and a longing for Muslims revival. In this way he was the first intellectual in India to stir Muslims into activism and to prepare the ground for �All�mah Iqb�l to widen and elaborate this field and to make it an object of his literary art. This book was written at the persuasion of Sir Saiyyid A�amd khan, who says, �When All�h S.W.T. will ask me �What have you brought with you?�, I shall reply that � I have got the Musaddas written�.

He extended the field of marthiyah from the conventional field of the tragedy of Karbala to personal tragedies. His elegy written at the death of Mirz� Asad Allah Kh�n Gh�lib has much personal touch which increases its effectiveness.

In the field of literary biography he wrote three brilliant books, viz. �ay�t-i-S��d� (The Life of S��d�), Y�dg�r-i-Gh�lib, (The Reminiscences of Gh�lib) and �ay�t-i-J�v�d (The Life of Sir Saiyyid A�mad Khan).

��l� is characterized by simplicity of language in prose as well as poetry which makes his works easily understood by all levels of people and widens the scope of their acceptability instead of being restricted to the elite.

�All�mah Iqb�l had very great respect for ��l� and has talked about him in two poems in B�ng-i-D�r�, i.e. Poems 44 and 118, titled �D�gh� and �Sh�bl� awr ��l� (Shibl� and ��l�) respectively.

37. H�tif I�fah�n�- He was an eminent Persian poet of Ir�n during the nineteenth century. He belonged to the group of poets working for literary renaissance of Ir�n in which he played an important role. �All�mah Iqb�l has referred to him in the opening verse of Poem 132. �Firdaus Mein Aek Muk�lamah� (A Conversation in Paradise).

38. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)- He was a German philosopher. His contribution to philosophy can be summarized thus.

(i) In The Phenomenology of Mind (1807) he showed the evolution of the human mind from the rudimentary consciousness of mere sensory experiences to reflective thought and awareness of itself

(ii) In Logic (1812-16) he showed that the human mind conceives the truth of the dialectical process consisting of the following three stages:

(b) It collects contradictory evidence which is opposed to his original thesis (anti-thesis).

In his view this dialectical process was also the process of human history and development of human institutions (e.g. the development of political and social institutions, science, art, religion etc.)

He also wrote three other philosophical books viz. Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Law and Aesthetics.

39. S. Im�m �ussain R.A. (626-683)- He was the grandson of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.), the son of S. F��imah R.A., his most beloved daughter, and S. �Al� R.A. his cousin and among the nearest and dearest to him. This ideal environment gave him the best spiritual as well as temporal knowledge and training and made him a man who can be called an example of �All�mah Iqb�l�s �Fard-i-K�mil�. Both S. Im�m �ussain R.A. and his elder brother, S. Imam �asan R.A. were greatly loved and respected by the Muslim Ummah. However, apparent trouble, but really the test of his mettle started at the time of the schism created by Am�r Mu��wiyah during the Divinely Guided Khil�fah of S. �Al� R.A. On the latter�s assassination S. Imam �asan R.A. was elected Khal�fah in Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah and Am�r Mu��wiyah declared himself to be the Khal�fah in Damascus. Later, Im�m �asan R.A. abdicated in favor of Am�r Mu��wiyah to avoid bloodshed of Muslims in case of a possible civil war.

In a very seriously un-Islamic move Am�r Mu��wiyah nominated his son Yaz�d as his successor and obtained partial oath of fealty for him from the Muslims. This act was in breach of his contract with Im�m �ussain R.A. as well as a deviation from the established practice of electing the Khal�fah. This act replaced the Divinely Guided Khil�fah with dynastic monarchy which has not been changed yet. For this reason and Yaz�d�s licentious and un-Islamic life style many people including S. Im�m �ussain R.A. opposed this move. Since then S. Im�m �ussain R.A. and his followers resisted Yaz�d in every possible way. Yaz�d also tightened his grip on the Muslim Ummah and perpetrated all kinds of coercion and atrocities to extract oaths of fealty from S. Im�m �ussain R.A. and his followers.

S. Im�m �ussain R.A. received invitations from the people of K�fah to relieve them from the high handed Umaiyyad rule. Being encouraged by this he proceeded to K�fah but was surprised to see the changed state of affairs there. Yaz�d and his officers had won over the residents of K�fah to their side by coercion and bribery. Instead of receiving help from people of K�fah he found himself surrounded by the Umaiyyad army, 4000 strong. �Ab�d Allah Ibn Ziy�d, the governor of Ir�q, having failed to obtain the oath of fealty from this group forced them to Karbala on the bank of the river Euphrates about 40 km. north east of K�fah. There they remained surrounded and completely deprived of food and water in the heat of the Arabian desert for ten days during which S. Im�m �ussain R.A. lost many near and dear ones, including his infant son. Ultimately, on the tenth day S. Im�m �ussain R.A. was martyred, the tents were ransacked and the women and children still surviving were sent back to Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah.

The atrocities perpetrated by the Umaiyyad army over this small group cannot be even read with equanimity, leave alone described, by one who has even an iota of Im�n. The martyrdom of S. Im�m �usain R.A. is a horror which has darkened the face of Umaiyyads for ever. On the other hand the fame of S. Im�m �ussain R.A. and the noble cause he represented will survive till eternity. It was a victory for truth, justice and perseverance in the cause of God. The following verse sum up our feelings in the matter:

(224) �usain�s murder is really the death of Yaz�d
Islam is re-invigorated after every Karbal�

The noble example of Im�m �usain R.A. has been a beacon of light to all fighters in the cause of God and will continue to remain so till the Day of Judgment.

40. Shaikh Ab� Bakr Mu�y al-D�n Ibn al-�Arab� (1165-1240)- He was an Arab of Andalus (Islamic Spain). After obtaining traditional education in Andalus and North Africa he traveled widely in the eastern lands, including pilgrimage to Makkah-i-Mu�a��amah and finally settled in Damascus, where he died. Ibn al-�Arab� was a prolific writer. He has written over 500 books according to Abd al-Ra�m�n Jam� (Biographical Note 45), and 250 according to his own statement in a book. Professor Khal�q A�mad Ni�m� has listed 150 books which are still available. Out of this vast treasure of knowledge the two most famous are: Fu�u� al-�ikam (The Bezels of Wisdom) and Fut��t al-Makkiyah (The Revelations at Makkah). The latter was inspired and written in Makkah during his pilgrimage visit there.

Ibn al- �Arab� is perhaps the most controversial s�f� on account of his thinking about Creation or the Universe. He is famous for his theory of Wa�dat al-Wuj�d (The Unity of Existence). According to this theory only God has real existence and everything else is not of the same degree of existence. These theories are also called �Monism� and �Pantheism�. Many s�f�s and philosophers have accepted and loudly lauded this concept but an equal number of equally credible s�f�s and philosophers condemn it and consider it to be bordering on polytheism and in contradiction of the thought of the ѫhiryah school (those believing in the seen only) according to which God is separate and different from the Universe of which He is the Creator. His supporters include eminent scholars like Maj�d al-D�n F�r�z�b�d�, �Abd al-Razz�q K�sh�n� and �Abd al-Wahh�b Sha�r�n�. His opponents are also perfect s�f�s and people of oceanic knowledge, like Taq� al-D�n A�mad (1263‑1328) and Shaikh A�mad Sirhind� Mujaddid Alf Th�n� (Biographical Note No. 57). The latter enunciated the theory of Wa�dat al-Shuh�d (The Unity of Manifestation) according to which God is the One and the Only Lord, and the Universe is His Creation or Reflection and as such is different from the Essence of God whose reflection it is. The difference between these two theories can be summed up by saying that the Wa�dat al-Wuj�d says Hama �st (All is He), while the Wa�dat al-Shuh�d says Hama Az �st (All is From Him). See Chapter 3, paragraph �Controversy between Wa�dat al-Wuj�d and Wa�dat al-Shu��d� for a fuller discussion of this matter. However, in spite of serious differences with his concept of Ibn al-�Arab� both sides have great respect for the knowledge, piety and s�fism of Ibn al-�Arab� and he is commonly called Shaikh al‑Akbar (The Great Spiritual Leader).

�All�mah Iqb�l was at first somewhat inclined towards Wa�dat-al-Wuj�d, primarily under the influence of his study of the pre-Islamic Persian philosophies and mysticism in connection with his research for Ph.D. degree. This belief was later strengthened by the thoughts of Mawl�n� Jal�l al-D�n R�m� (Biographical Note No. 65) whom he revered most as is evidenced by calling him P�r-i-R�m� in his poetry. Earlier Mawl�n� R�m� believed in Wa�dat al-Wuj�d but later changed over to Wa�dat al Shuh�d. Later, under the influence of the works of S. Im�m Ab� �amid al-Ghaz�l� (Biographical Note 33) and Shaikh A�mad Sirhind� Mujaddid Alf Th�n� 9 Biographical Note 57 ) �All�mah Iqb�l�s main criticism of Wa�dat-al-Wuj�d was its being derived from Plato�s philosophy of �Idealism� in connection with the creation of the Universe, which was an un-Islamic �Ajam� thought and had been further elaborated in Ir�n. In addition, it resulted in the philosophy of Fatalism which had already crept into Muslim thought and was sapping their creativity and productivity. For these reasons very soon �All�mah Iqb�l changed to Wa�dat al-Shuh�d, which was the starting point of his theory of �Khud� � (Self), which increases and sharpens Man�s creativity and productivity. In spite of this �All�mah Iqb�l had very great respect for Ibn al-�Arab� as is shown in his several letters to various intellectuals on mystic problems.

41. Ab� �usain Ibn �Abd Allah Ibn �asan Ibn �A1� Ibn S�n� (Avicenna of the West) (980-1037)- He was born at Afsh�nah near Bukh�r�h, Turkistan. He obtained his early education at Bukh�r�h, where he showed signs of genius from the very beginning and was well versed in Qur��nic learning. He studied from Ab� �Abd Allah al-Natil�, who was a leading philosopher then. Later he studied on his own. At the age of 17 he had full knowledge of medicine, geometry, logic, astronomy, physics and metaphysics. In medicine he earned ever-lasting reputation, and attracted leading physicians of his day to himself for consultation. His extraordinary intelligence and innovative thinking created much jealousy among his contemporary intelligentsia. This made his career very chequered. Though he is most famous as a physician he has made outstanding and lasting contributions to philosophy, logic, occult sciences, mathematics, astronomy, music, poetry, ethics, and geology. His valuable discoveries in many sciences were the fore runners of important later discoveries. Though he made monumental contributions to all the above sciences his greatest contribution was to medicine and philosophy. His book Al-Q�n�n Fi �l-�ib (The Canons of Medicine) is a monumental work in medicine. Similarly his two books, viz. Al-Shif� and Al-Naj�t are monumental contributions to philosophy. His medical books remained the chief treatises on medicine in Europe and Asia from the 12th to the 17th century and are still used in the Muslim countries in the so called system of Greek medicine (which is really Islamic medicine on account of the great contributions of Muslims to it). Thus Ibn S�n� was the master of sciences, philosophy and metaphysics and the father of several of the sciences. His views on matter placed him in conflict with religious scholars and s�f�s like Im�m Ghaz�l�. Among the many tributes that Western scientists and historians have paid to Ibn S�n� is the naming of a genus of tropical trees called Avicenna which has many species.

�All�mah Iqb�l has mentioned him in his works in connection with the controversies of Intellect and Intuition. In spite of his great respect for Ibn S�n� for his learning and originality �All�mah Iqb�l considers his attributes inadequate for comprehension of the Truth, which can only be grasped with Mawl�n� R�m�s Love. Cf.

(225) B� �Al� in Lailah�s camel�s dust is lost
Only R�m�s hand got her litter�s curtain

(226) The latter dived deep and reached the pearl
The former got entangled in the whirlpool

(227) Do not ask the trickster Intellect for guidance to the Path
Come to Love as it possesses perfection in this specific art

42. Taq� al-D�n A�mad Ibn �Abd al-��shim Ibn Taymiyah (1262‑1327)‑ He was born in �arr�n but fled to Damascus with his parents to escape from the Mongols who were creating havoc in the Muslim world at that time. He was a genius and mastered the existing sciences, and religious and rational jurisprudence at an early age.

In 1282 he succeeded his father as professor of �anbal� Law in Damascus, which position he held for 17 years. During this time he earned rare distinction as a scholar. However, his independent thinking created hostility in the Sh�fi��te scholars on account of which he lost his post. He started preaching Jih�d against the Mongols and moved the Muslim Ummah to the extent that Sul�n al-N��ir of Egypt was forced to wage war against the so called invincible Mongols and dealt a decisive blow to them in the battle of Marj al‑Safar in 1302. Ibn Taymiyah participated in that battle.

From this time to his death in prison in 1327 he had many ups and downs and prison sentences in 1307, 1320 and 1326. In addition to imprisonment he was denounced, beaten, lashed and put to all sorts of mental and physical tortures. His main differences with the establishment of the orthodox and conventional �ulam� arose from his belief in the supremacy of individual conscience and his preaching against worshipping saints and other religious leaders. He is one of the greatest mujta�ids of Islam and worked against taql�d, which added fuel to the fire of his opponents. This was the time when the Greek learning had been translated into Arabic and was misleading the Muslim Ummah to which we have referred elsewhere. Ibn Taymiyah was one of the serious opponents of the school of Ibn al-�Arab� whose teachings were leading the Muslims into believing in Fatalism. This aspect of his books influenced �All�mah Iqb�l in changing his belief from Wa�dat al-Wuj�d to Wa�dat al-Shuh�d. During his imprisonment he used his time fruitfully in writing and prepared a commentary of the Holy Qur��n.

1. Revelation is the only source of reliable knowledge in religious matters. Reason and Intuition are not dependable sources.

3. The consensus of opinion of the religious scholars of the first three centuries of Islam are also reliable sources for understanding the fundamental principles of Islam.

4. The impurities of the Greek thought must be removed from Islamic literature and its teachings must be restored to its pristine purity.

43. S. Ibr�h�m A.S. (Bible�s Abraham) (Early Second Millennium B.C.) - He is a well known and very eminent prophet and is the ancestor of all the prophets of Islam except S. �dam A.S. and S. N�� A.S. He is also known as �Khal�l Allah� (The Friend of God). He is mentioned in the Holy Qur��n at 31 places the more important of which are listed below:

-His religion, was neither Judaism nor Christianity, nor Paganism, but true Islam 2:130, 135; 3:67; 3:195.

-He argued with the skeptics, his father, and his people against idols and idolatry 2:258; 4:74; 19:41‑50; 21:51�-71; 26:78‑82; 29:16‑18, 24, 25; 37:83‑98-

�All�mah Iqb�l has brought his noble example to the readers� attention at many places in his works including B�ng-i-Dar� a very prominent one of which is in Poem 144 �Khi�ar-i-R�h� (The Travelers� Guide).

44. S.��s� A.S. (Bible�s Jesus) (6 B.C.-30 C.E.) - He is a well known prophet of Islam. He is mentioned at 38 places n the Holy Qur��n. Emphasis is laid on the following important points:

-He was a human being and not God or His Son and had no share in Divinity 4:171; 5:17, 72, 75; 43:59, 63, 64; 9:30; 23:50; 43:61.

-He was no more than a true and righteous prophet 4:171; 5:75; 5:116‑18; 6:85; 43:59, 63, 64.

Reference may be made to the four Gospels of the New Testament and Appendix III, No. 16, pp. 17‑22 for details of the Christian and other beliefs about him.

�All�mah Iqb�l has alluded to some of these features in his poetry, like Poem 49. Iltij�-i-Mus�fir (The Traveler�s Request).

45. �Abd al-Ra�m�n J�m� R.A. (1414‑93)‑ He was born at J�m, which is a village near Khuras�n. He was a versatile genius and was considered to be the �The Sun of Ta�awwuf � and �The Moon of gnostic poetry�. He has retained this eminence in both fields till today and has always been considered the �Doyen of S�f�s�.

He received early education in Arabic and Persian languages from his father, and got general religious education from several elite scholars in Her�t and Samarqand. He took the oath of fealty at the hands of Sa�d al‑D�n K�sghar� and later benefited from several eminent s�f�s of his day. On the death of Sa�d� al-D�n K�shghar� he took oath of fealty at the hands of Khw�jah Na��r al-D�n �Ab�d Allah and remained with him for the rest of his life.

In ta�awwuf he belonged to the school of Ibn-al-�Arab� which was based on �Wa�dat al-Wuj�d�. In this school he progressed to the stage of extreme Love of God and the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). This is reflected widely in his poetry. This attribute made him near and dear to �All�mah Iqb�l, who sought solace and spiritual pleasure from J�m�s poetry. This happened in spite of the basic difference in the school of �Wa�dat al Wuj�d� and that of �All�mah Iqb�l, i.e. Wa�dat al-Shuh�d�. A few examples of the �All�mah�s respect for J�m� are given below:

(228) Sometimes I read the verses of �Ir�q�
Sometimes I am set afire with the J�m�s fire

(229) Though I do not know the music of Arabia
I am participating in the camel driver�s music

(230) I perceive signs of immaturity in logic
Its reasoning is the indication of failure

(231) Many a closed doors are opened to me
By two verses from R�m� or from J�m�

(232) With the style of Mull� J�m� enamored am I
By his verse and prose made mature am I

46. �Abd al-Kar�m al-J�l� (d. 1406)‑ He is an eminent Muslim philosopher and the originator of the dialectical method in logic and not Hegel as the Western writers would have us believe. According to al-J�l� the �One‑ness� is thesis, the �He‑ness� is anti‑thesis, and the �I‑ness� is the synthesis. He was a sensitive poet and thinker. His fields of thought were human ontology and psychology. He is known to posterity for his concept of the �Perfect Man�. His philosophy influenced �All�mah Iqb�l in formulating and crystallizing his concept of Fard-i-K�mil.

47. Junaid Baghd�d� R.A. (ca. 820-910)‑ He is a very eminent s�f�. He was born at Baghd�d and obtained s�f� training from Sar� Saq�� R.A., ��rith Mu�sib� R.A. and Mu�m�d Qaūb� R.A. His period corresponds with the period in which the Greek philosophy had captured the minds of Muslim scholars and thinkers. Unguarded Intellect had misguided them resulting from which a general revolt against religion had started. Junaid Baghd�d�s ta�awwuf was based completely on the Holy Qur��n and �ad�th. He is cited to have said, �Only that person can find the path of ta�awwuf who has the Holy Qur��n in his right hand and the �ad�th of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. in the left hand, so that with the light of these two torches he can protect himself from doubt as well as Bid�ah.

He is graded among the highest ranking s�f�s by eminent s�f�s like Shaikh Far�d al-D�n �A��ar R.A. and S. �Al� Hujw�r� R.A.

�All�mah Iqb�l had very high reverence and Love for him and has often talked about him in his works as having reached the apex of faqr. Addressing God he says:

(233) The grandeur of Sanjar and Sal�m is the manifestation of Thy Majesty
The faqr of Junaid and B�yaz�d is Thy unveiled Beauty

At another place, lamenting the failure of the religious education in creating the Love of God, he says:

(234) I no longer see in the schools of the �aram
Junaid�s heart and the insight of Ghaz�l� and R�z�

48. Kal�m or S.M�s� A.S. ( Bible�s Moses) (14th. or 13th. Century B.C.) - Kal�m is the abbreviation of Kal�m Allah, an honorific title of S. M�s� A.S. on account of the statement in the Holy Qur��n that he conversed with God on Mount ��r in the Sin�i Peninsula after coming out of Egypt with the Israelites (7:142‑45; 27:7‑14; 28:29‑35). He is a very much revered prophet of Islam and represents the stage of the Israelites in the history of Islam, which dates back to the time of S. �dam A.S. He was the first of the prophets of Islam described in the Holy Qur��n to bring the Shar�ah or the Law. According to the Holy Qur��n, Taurah which now forms part of the Old Testament of the Holy Bible, was revealed to him. However, this book is a controversial document in the present form and cannot be said to be the book revealed to S. M�s� A.S. and mentioned in the Holy Qur��n. At best the first five books of the Old Testament, attributed to S. M�s� A.S., can be said to contain the Taurah. (For details see Appendix III, No. 8, pp. 288‑90). The Holy Qur��n mentions S. M�s� A.S. at 35 places, the most important of which are those connected with his conversation with God (7:142-45; 7:133; 27-7-14; 28:29-35). The other important mentions are in the court of Pharaoh and his meeting with the mysterious person Khi�ar A.S. (See Appendix III, No. 8, vs. 18:60- 82. Notes 2404, 2405).

49. Ab� �lib Kal�m Hamad�n� K�sh�n� (d. 1651) - He is a well known Persian poet of India and Persia. He belonged to K�sh�n by descent and to Hamad� by birth. He was educated and brought up in both cities and then arrived in the Indian sub-continent during the reign of N�r al-D�n Jah�ng�r (1569-1627; reigned 1605-27). He moved between Haiderd�b�d Dakkan, �gra and Hamad�n several times but lived mostly in the first two places. He was one of the favorite poets of the Court of Shih�b al-D�n Shahj�h�n (1592‑1666, reigned 1627‑58) and went to Kashm�r with him, where he died and was buried. He is referred to in Poem 98 �Zuhd Aur Rind�� (Piety and Ecstasy).

50. Immanuel Kant (1724‑1804)‑ He is a famous German philosopher and is the founder of the concept known as �Critical Idealism�. According to him the nature of the �Ultimate Reality� is incomprehensible to the human mind, which can only see �the reflection of this Reality in nature�s phenomena�. The following three books of his are famous for dealing with his philosophy:

The Critique of Pure Reason (1781). It is an exposition of the limits of human knowledge and the ineptness of logic for comprehension of �The Reality�.

The Critique of Practical Reason (1788). It establishes a new foundation for ethics and religion.

The Critique of Judgment (1790). It establishes a logical connection between his theoretical and moral philosophy.

51. Khair al-D�n B�rbar�ss� (1474-1546) - He and his brother Arouj B�rbar�ss� were famous naval commanders in the �Uthm�niyah Khil�fah and were dreaded by Christian countries on account of their bravery and efficiency. They were born in a Greek family which had embraced Islam. At that time the �Uthm�niyah naval power held sway over the oceans surrounding the western part of the Muslim world. Khair al-D�n was appointed admiral by Sulaim�n the Magnificent. The B�rbar�ss� Brothers had earlier brought the North African countries under the Uthm�niyah Khil�fah, and Khair al-D�n was made the Governor General of Alegeria in 1534. During this period his biggest ambition was to conquer back Spain from the Christians. After much preparation he invaded Gibralter on August 20, 1540 and the defenders had to retreat to the fort which was besieged by the Muslims. However, they could not hold it for long due to lack of reinforcements and supplies, and the siege had to be lifted. �All�mah Iqb�l has talked about Khair al-D�n B�rbar�ss� in Poem 88. Shakwah (The Complaint) in which he has stated that the Muslim army even drove their horses into the sea. That verse alludes to the expedition of B�rbar�ss� Brothers in north-west Africa for expelling the Spaniards from those Muslim lands and for establishing the suzerainty of the Islamic Uthm�niyah Khil�fah. About 1512 they conquered all land up to the north‑west sea coast, and in their zeal they drove their horses to some distance into the Atlantic Ocean, saying that �if the land of God had extended beyond the African coast they would conquer it also in His name�.

52. Khw�jah Khi�ar A.S.- He has been mentioned in B�ng-i-Dar� in poems 15. �Aql O Dil (The Intellect and the Heart), 49. �Iltij�-i-Mus�fir� (The Traveler�s Request) and 144. �Khi�ar� (The Traveler�s Guide). Though he is also frequently mentioned in Islamic literature his identity is shrouded in mystery. The Holy Qur��n 18:63 mentions �one of Our servants� without any name. However, Islamic traditions and �ad�th literature give him the name of �Khi�ar�. His identity is still not clear and many picturesque folk tales have gathered round him. �All�mah Abd Allah Y�suf �A1� gives the following information about him (Appendix III, No. 8, p. 727):

Khi�ar means �Green�: his knowledge is fresh and green, and drawn out of the living sources of life for it is drawn from the Allah�s own Presence. He is a mysterious being, who had to be sought out. He has the secrets of the paradoxes of Life, which ordinary people do not understand, or understand in a wrong sense, as we shall see further on. The nearest equivalent figure in the literature of the People of the Book is Melchizedek or Melchisedek (the Greek form in the New Testament). In Gen. xiv, 18‑32, he appears as king of Salem, priest of the Most High God: he blesses Abraham and Abraham gives him tithes. St. Paul allegorizes him in his Epistle to the Hebrews (v. 6‑10; vii. 1‑10): �he was without father, without mother, without descent, being neither beginning of days nor end of life�. That is to say, he appeared mysteriously: neither his parentage nor his Pedigree is known, and he seems to live for all time. These qualities are also attributed to Khi�ar in popular Muslim tradition�.

Mawl�n� Mawd�d�, after a good deal of discussion of the Holy Qur��n 18:63, has come to the conclusion that the reference of Khi�ar is correct on the basis of �ad�ths on this matter. However, he has come to the conclusion that Khi�ar was not a human being but an angel. This is based on the argument that a human being is not authorized to perform the first two of the three acts attributed to him in this verse. They are not permissible under the Shar�ah even if directed by ilh�m. However, these acts, though against the Shar�ah, are among the creative acts of God and can be performed by angels under His Commandments, just as angels make a person ill, and make him die etc. (Appendix III, No.42, Vol. 3, pp. 37-42.)

Mawl�n� I�l�h� has expressed the opinion that though the identity of the person in 18:63 is S. Khi�ar A.S. on the basis of �ad�th literature, Khi�ar was a man and a prophet with Wahy. This is based on the arguments that (i) M�s� A.S. being a prophet could be sent to only another prophet to learn and (ii) Like all other prophets he was endowed with special powers, which are described in this verse and that these powers are given only to human beings who are conferred the rank of a prophet. (Appendix III, No. 34, Vol. 4, p. 63.).

53. Henry Wadsworth LongfeIlow (1807-82) - He is a famous American poet, well known for his short poems and some long ones on historical subjects, like the �Song of Hiawatha� (1855). �All�mah Iqb�l�s Poem 26. Pay�m-i-�ub� (The Message of the Dawn) is adapted from Longfellow.

54. S. �ussain Bin Man��r al-�all�j (ca 858-922) - He was born in Baiza, near ��r in Persia. He obtained education from Sahl Bin �Abd Allah at Tustar, then from ��mar Bin �Uthm�n at Ba�rah and S. Junaid al-Baghd�d� at Baghd�d. After staying in Hij�z for an year he returned to Baghd�d and went to see S. Junaid al-Baghd�d� in the company of some other s�f�s. He put some question to S. Junaid to which he did not reply. This offended Man��r and he left Baghd�d for Tustar. He soon became very famous due to his piety and knowledge. This made several people jealous, including S. �Umar Bin �Uthm�n. His opponents mounted a campaign against him and he started losing popularity. He traveled far and wide for the next five years, including Khur�s�n, Transoxiana, S�st�n, India, Makkah Mu�a��amah and Ahw�z, where he settled down. He soon regained his popularity. However, he had reached a stage of �irf�n when people could not understand him and started acting against him. The main crime attributed to him was his cry of �Ana al-�aq, which was taken to mean �I am God�, or �I am the Truth�.

This appeared obviously contrary to the Shar�ah and was considered heretic by the �ul�m� of the time, including S. Junaid Baghd�d� R.A. who passed the edict of death against him. He was imprisoned for about an year by the Khal�fah pending his final judgment, which was ultimately given against him. He was hanged, his body was burnt and the ashes were blown into the air. Man��r recited The Holy Qur��n 42: 18 (part), which says, �Only those wish to hasten it (the Hour) who believe not in it: those who believe hold it in awe, and know that it is the Truth�.

The cry of Man��r has made him perhaps the most controversial figure in the spiritual history of Islam. The s�f�s are divided about the justice of the edict, but the �ul�m� are unanimous in their opinion on its correctness and justice. �All�mah Iqb�l also was against Man��r at first, as is shown by his letters specially the one to Akbar All�h�b�d�. However, more study, contemplation and meditation convinced him about the correctness of Man��r, and he has praised his sincere and ardent Love for God, as in the following verses.

(235) Spiritual freedom as well as the Shar�ah knows he
Regarding Ta�awwuf , only second to Man��r is he

(236) His talking lip was death�s message to Man��r
How can Some One�s Love now can claim one

Dr. Ab� Sa��d N�r al-D�n in his book, Islamic Ta�awwuf and Iqb�l, (p. 312) says: �It appears necessary to present here another point in connection with the annihilation of s�f�s. That point is that �All�mah Iqb�l says about the cry of �Ana al-�aq� by Man��r al-�all�j, claiming union with God shows that his cry of �Ana al-�aq� never meant that he had union with God. (Deep study of the sayings of Man��r al-�all�j collected by the famous French orientalist, L. Massignon) . Really it meant, �I am the Creative Truth�. Only the contemporary s�f�s presented it in the garb of �Wa�dat al-Wuj�d� � In this connection refer to Appendix III, No. 21.

For �Creative Truth� refer to The Holy Qur��n 15:85; 16:3; 44:39; 45:22; and 46:3. According to The Holy Qur��n 2:30‑34 read with the above verses and a well known �ad�th in this connection, creation of man and finally that of the Holy Prophet S.A.W., was the ultimate object of creation of the universe. This was so because only Man had been endowed by God with the �irf�n which could show him the real beauty of the Universe. All other creatures were incapable of it. This is what the �Creative Truth� is. However not every man is worthy of this honor. Only he is so who has acquired �irf�n and has developed his khud� by opening his spiritual eyes. Man��r al-�all�j�s cry meant that he was part of that �Creative Truth�.

(237) How outrageous you were! You exposed me also
I was the only secret in the Universe� breast

55. Saiyyid M�r �asan (1844‑1929)‑ He was a scholar of Islam as well as Arabic and Persian literatures and operated an oriental school in Sialkot along with three others. He did not know English but realized the value and need for Western education for Indian Muslims. For that reason he fully cooperated with Sir Saiyyid A�mad Kh�n in his educational and social reforms of the Muslim society. �All�mah Iqb�l was fortunate to obtain his early oriental education from M�r �asan in the latter�s school and at his home. This gave him a very good grounding in Islam and oriental literature, which stood him in good stead all his life. �All�mah Iqb�l showed his respect and appreciation for M�r �asan all his life and later was instrumental in conferring of the title of �Shams al‑�Ulam�� on him by the British Government of India.

56. Khw�jah Mu��n al-D�n Chisht� Ajmer� R.A (1139‑1236)�- He is the most eminent s�f� of the Indo-Pakistan-Bangladesh sub-continent after S �A1� Bin Uthman al‑Hujwiri. He was the founder of the Chishtiyah order of s�f�s in India and occupies a monumental position in the civilization and culture of the sub-continent. He was born at Sajz (also called Sanjar). Hence he is also called �sajz�� or �sanjar� �. He had the privilege of learning from Shaikh �us�m al‑D�n of Bukh�rah and Mawl�n� Shar�f al-D�n of Samarqand, and took the oath of fealty at the hands of �Uthm�n H�r�n� at Nish�p�r. He migrated from Sajz in central Asia to Ajmer in India via Lahore, Multan and Delhi and reached there in 1165 (1192‑93 according to W��id A�mad Mas�d). On reaching Ajmer he studied Sanskrit and Hindu religious literature. At that time the rank and file of the Hindu society, known as shudr�s, who constituted the society�s great majority, were groaning under the yoke of social and economic cruelties of the high caste Hindus, who constituted only a small minority. He propagated Islam very successfully with the background he had. The message of Taw��d-i-Il�h (Unity of the Deity) and Taw��d-i-Ins�niyat (Unity of Mankind), contained in Islam, was accepted far and wide in the Indian sub-continent. A large number of people accepted Islam at the hands of the saint and his disciples who spread out and carried the message of Islam with them. The Khaw�jah lived at Ajmer for 71 years till his death (44 years according to the other tradition mentioned above).

Through his spiritual powers and incessant efforts he became extremely popular in the country and he shined like a beacon of light for all seekers of the Truth. By his devotion to the poor and the needy he earned the title of Ghar�b Naw�z (Benefactor of the Poor) which has continued till today. He has always been and still is revered by the rich and the poor alike. �All�mah Iqb�l is also one of his great admirers and has paid him tribute in many poems. The �All�mah visited his mausoleum several times to pay homage. Khw�jah ֫�ib is the author of several books among which An�s al-Arw�� and Dal�l al-��rif�n are the most famous.

57. Shaikh A�mad Sirhind� Mujaddid Alf-i-Th�n� R.A. (1564-1624) - He is one of the most eminent scholars and Sufis of India. He belonged to the Chishtiyah and Qadiriyah orders. He obtained education of the Holy Qur��n from his father and that of other subjects from several highest scholars of his time, including his father. After this he went to Agra and started teaching but returned to Sirhind after a short time.

His deep knowledge and insight into Islamic learning and his efforts in revival of the true values of Islam, cleared of all bid��t, earned him the title of Mujaddid Alf -i-Th�n� (Revivalist of the Second Millennium of the Hijrah Era). His main struggle was to stop the un-Islamic beliefs and practices of the Mughal Court during the reigns of Emperors Jal�l al-D�n Akbar and N�r al-D�n Jah�ng�r. These practices had resulted mainly from Akbar and Jah�ng�r�s efforts to placate H�ndus. Akbar had started a new religion, called D�n-i-Il�h� (The Divine Religion) in which he assumed the status of a prophet and the law giver. People had to prostrate before him. Study and propagation of Islam was discouraged and many Islamic rites, including beard were either prohibited or discouraged and ridiculed. Many unscrupulous �ulam� had issued edicts in favor of the emperor. The few �ulam� who resisted the new religion were killed or imprisoned. Mujaddid was one such ��lim. He wrote and lectured extensively against such practices and orders. He also created a body of his followers who spread out widely in the realm and preached against the emperor. He created a body of his pupils and followers in the military and civil services also who were firm believers in his preaching and worked against Akbar from within the government..

He also worked vehemently for purification of ta�awwuf and tried to remove all concepts and practices used in some misguided forms of ta�awwuf which were against the Shar�ah. These practices had crept into ta�awwuf from the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu philosophies and mysticism. His most intense opposition was to the concept of Wa�d�t al-Wuj�d, of Mu�y al-D�n Ibn al-�Arab�, and replaced it with Wa�dat al-Shud�d. These two concept are discussed in Chapter 3, Section II. However, the essential difference between �Wa�dat al-Wuj�d� and �Wa�dat al-Shuh�d� is that the former is based on the concept of Hama �st (All is He) while the latter says that Hama Az �st (All is From Him). He also preached that the highest rank for a s�f� is not Fan� Fi Allah (Annihilation in God) but Baq� Fi al-�Abdiyat (Continuation of Life in Service of God). According to him real ta�awwuf is the creation of true sincerity in the beliefs and deeds of man.

The teachings of Mujaddid very soon upset the unscrupulous �ulam� who poisoned Jah�ng�r against him. Finally, Jah�ng�r summoned him to his court. When attending his court Mujaddid did not perform the required prostration and explained the correct Islamic view about this and many other matters. This enraged the emperor and he imprisoned Mujaddid for about an year in the Gwaliar Fort in 1619. Soon a body of sincere pupils and followers in the fort gravitated to him and attended his lectures. In these circumstances Jah�ng�r was compelled to release him from the prison, and also gave him a token cash reward. After this till about the end of his life Mujaddid lived with and preached among the army personnel, where he created a body of his followers who did very laudable service to Islam for centuries after the death of Mujaddid.

�All�mah Iqb�l had very great respect for Mujaddid for which reason he visited his mausoleum several times to pay his respects. He was also convinced of the truth of Wa�dat al-Shuh�d and made it the starting point of his philosophy of Khud� or �Self Cognizance�. He has paid high tribute to Mujaddid in his works. Cf.

(238) Since three hundred years India�s taverns are closed
It is expedient that your bounty be general O cup bearer

(Source: Appendix III, No. 5, pp. 291-96; No. 9, pp. 101-14; No. 14; No. 38, pp. 440-75 ).

58. Benito Mussolini (1883‑1945) ‑ He was the well known Italian Fascist dictator. He started as a school master and journalist and soon joined the Socialist Party. In 1919 he organized the Fascist Party with a nationalist, syndicalist and anti‑Communist policy, based on force. He was appointed Prime Minister after organizing a march on Rome with his followers who gravitated to him due to the economic depression. Soon he made Italy a totalitarian state. He engaged in several military episodes, viz . conquest of Ethiopia (1935), military help to General Franco of Spain (1938) and joined Hitler�s Germany in the famous �Axis� (1936). He fought with Germany against the Allies in World War II. Due to military defeats he was overthrown in 1943 but was re-installed Dictator in Northern Italy by the Germans. He was eventually captured and killed by the Italians in 1945.

59. Mu��af� Kam�l P�sh� (1881‑1938)‑ He is the famous Turkish General and the founder and first dictator of the present day Turkey. He was born in Salonika in the Macedonian highlands, which was the abode of revolutionaries in Europe. His father, �Al� Raz�, died early and Mu�tafa Kam�l was brought up by his mother, Zubaidah Kh�num. He had a natural aptitude for military education and joined the Rushtiya Military School after completing his primary education, and then went to the Military School at Muntasir and the Imperial Staff College at Constantinople to complete his military education. He earned the nick name of �Kam�l� for his proficiency in Mathematics.

Turkey at that time was passing through a very bad period of its history. Constantinople had become a bed of foreign intrigues in the midst of which Sul�an Abd al-�am�d was conducting his despotic rule over the brave but paralyzed Turkish people. A group of young officers, headed by Mu�tafa Kam�l formed a secret revolutionary party called �Wa�an� (Motherland) for deposing the Sult�n and reforming the State. This was soon discovered and all of them were arrested. However, the Sult�n was reluctant to punish these officers for fear of adverse public reaction and released them but tightened his grip. Several other similar organizations soon came into existence. Mu�tafa Kam�l and Enver P�sh�, another military genius, worked together to save Turkey from extinction.

Mu�tafa Kam�l�s hard and bold military actions before, during and after World War I in the pursuit of protecting Turkey from the political intrigues as well as the military onslaughts of the Western Allied Powers have earned him a place of high respect in history. Before World War I his brave defense against the Italian invasion of Tripoli in 1911, his turning a feared defeat in the Balk�ns War of 1912‑13 into a decisive victory for Turkey and his victories at Gallipoli during World War I against heavy military and non-military odds rightly won him the title of �Gh�z�� for the rest of his life. After the War, he frustrated the onslaughts of Greeks, helped by their ally, Britain, in trying to carve out a Greek Empire out of the remains of the �Uthm�niyah Khil�fah and inflicted a crushing defeat on them under very unfavorable circumstances.

After the end of World War I and the war with Greeks he got a period of peace in which he consolidated his gains and successfully tried to reorganize Turkey into a prosperous State. He introduced many social and political reforms between 1921 and 1923 with the help of his sympathizers, and established the Turkish Republic in October 1923, abolished the Khil�fah in March 1924 and converted Turkey into a secular State.

Not all his sweeping political, social, economic and cultural reforms were popular, especially the abolition of the Khil�fah, secularization of the State and cultural reforms. These efforts exposed him to the anger of sincere Muslims all over the world who wanted to restore Islam to its pristine purity and grandeur after freeing the Muslim world from the clutches of Western powers. �All�mah Iqb�l is one of this group of Muslims whose heart was grieved by the abolition of the Khil�fah. In spite of the political and economic weaknesses of the �Uhm�niyah Khil�fah before, during and after World War I, and the corruption and inefficiency, which led to that state of affairs, the institution of Khil�fah, was providing some degree of unity o the Muslim Ummah and was giving it the color of a super-national political entity. This was lost by abolition of the Khil�fah and the Muslim Ummah became divided into secular nation states whose evils we are seeing now. By this act Mu��af� Kam�l also tarnished his own image which he had earned by extremely heroic deeds in defense of the Khil�fah before, during and after World War I. So by abolition of the Khil�fah Mu��af� Kam�l deprived Islam and the Muslim Ummah of its rightful place of being the only super-national entity. It is in this sense that �All�mah Iqb�l calls him �imprudent Turk� in Poem 98. �Gharra-i-Shaww�l or Hil�l-i-�Eid � (The Eid Crescent).

It must be explained here that till 1924 �All�mah Iqb�l had very high regard for Mu��af� Kam�l and Turks as is shown in his Poem 145. �ul�-i-Isl�m (The Renaissance of Islam). It was only after the abolition of the Khil�fah by Mu��af� Kam�l, when Poem 98 was written, that he changed his views.

60. Gur� N�nak (ca. 1469‑1539) - He was an eminent social and religious reformer of the Indian sub-continent. He was initially a Hindu but preached reform. He combined the Hindu ethical system, with its doctrine of �reincarnation of soul� and �Karma�, with Islam�s mono-theism, disavowing image worship and caste strictures. This made the beginning of a new religion which adopted the name of Sikhism. Their holy book, the Granth ֫�ib, has drawn heavily from the writings of Muslim, Hindu and Sikh holy men. Gur� N�nak gathered round him men of spirit, and preached to them the message of love and humility. Later the Sikhs became militant and have been responsible for much bloodshed, particularly after the downfall of the Mughal Empire and at the time of India�s independence from the British in 1947 when the States of India and Pakistan were created. �All�mah Iqb�l had much respect for Gur� N�nak on account of the latter�s belief in �Taw��d-i-Il�h� and �Taw��d-i-Ins�niyat�, for which see Poems 42.Hindust�n� Bachchon ka Qaum� G�t� (The National Anthem of Indian Children) and 126. �N�nak�.

61. Reynold A. Nicholson- He is a famous orientalist of recent times. He was one of the professors at the Cambridge University with whom �All�mah Iqb�l was associated during his stay there. Nicholson has translated �Asr�r-i-Khud�� (The Secrets of the Self) which has been published many times.

62. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844‑1900) ‑ He was a German philosopher, philologist and poet. As a philosopher he believed in existentialism, i.e. the concept that Man is not part of an ordered metaphysical scheme, but that individuals must create their own being, each in his own specific situation and environment. He was a staunch believer in dynamism and material power for Man which resulted in his theory of the �Superman�. Some scholars have confused this with �All�mah Iqb�l�s dynamism and the concept of the �Mard-i-K�mil� with Nietzsche�s �Superman�. In the first place the concept of dynamism of these two thinkers is diametrically opposed to each other. Nietzsche� dynamism is the acquisition of material power and its use for material aggrandizement of the person and, at the best, his country. He is not concerned with the means used for acquiring power and believes in the motto �Ends justify the means�. In other words he is a follower of the medieval Italian political thinker Machiavelli (1469‑1527) and his book �Il Principe.� Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini and Joseph Stalin are the types of persons who are his heroes. On the other hand �All�mah Iqb�l�s dynamism is based on spiritual power, acquired with clean thinking and clean living, knowledge of the material as well as the spiritual universe and use of one�s power for establishing the rule of God with equality and justice for all. In his system �Ends do not justify the means�. The �end� as well as the means should both be chaste. It follows from this that the �superman� created by these two philosophies would be diametrically different from each other. For a comparison of Nietzsche�s �Superman� and �All�mah Iqb�l�s ��Mard-i-K�mil�� see Chapter 3, Section I.)

63. Khw�jah Mu�ammad Niz�m al-D�n Ma�b�b Ilah� R.A. (1233‑1324) ‑ He was born at Bad�y�n, India and obtained education there from Mawl�n� �Al� al-D�n U�ul� and at Delhi from several teachers of repute, including B�b� Far�d Ganj Shakar R.A., whom he loved and revered most and who made him his Khal�lfah. He is considered one of the most eminent wal�s of his age and is credited with helping B�b� Far�d Ganj Shakar R.A. in the latter�s efforts to establish the Chishtiah S�fi order in Delhi. This order had been founded by Khw�jah Mu��n al- D�n R.A. in India and by B�b� Far�d Ganj Shakar R.A. in Delhi. The characteristic feature of this order is a balanced harmony between Shar�ah and Ta�awwuf. The personality of Khw�jah Ni�m al‑D�n was the embodiment of Islamic character and Shar�ah.

He is one of the wal�s whom �All�mah Iqb�l holds in highest reverence. He was a frequent visitor of the wal�s mausoleum in Dehl�. Poem 49. �Iltij�-i-Mus�fir� (The Traveler�s Request) is a spontaneous expression of the �All�mah�s feelings when he visited the mausoleum in 1905 just before leaving for Europe for higher studies.

64. Im�m Ab� Bakr Mu�ammad Ibn Zakariya Fakhr al-D�n al-R�z� (Rhazes of the West) (865‑925) ‑ He was born at Rayy near Tehran but traveled far and wide on account of his reputation as a physician and scientist. He is accepted as the most outstanding scientist of the Medieval times. He was a genius, not only in the depth of his knowledge, but also in its diversity. The fields of his knowledge cover such diverse subjects as medical science, chemistry, physics, music, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and ethics. He was a very prolific writer and has left monumental works in all these fields. However, he is best known for his contribution to the medical science. His achievements in this and other fields cannot be condensed into the short space of this biographical note and may be seen in the source cited below. However, the following extract from the same book should suffice as a testimony to Raz�s universal acceptance as a genius:

�He is universally recognized as the most outstanding scientist of the medieval times who influenced the course of thought in diverse branches of knowledge. �Rhazes�, says Max Meyerhoff, �was undoubtedly the greatest physician of all times�. He wrote several remarkable manuals of medicine which are characterized by striking originality and brilliance. A number of his works were translated into several European languages and according to �Encyclopaedia of Islam�, �Down to the seventeenth century A.C. the authority of R�zi was undisputed ..... In the field of medical practice he surpassed the knowledge of the ancients�. Writing in his well known book �Arabian Medicine� Edward G. Browne recognizes Raz� as �the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians and one of the most prolific as an author. He was the most eminent thinker of the ninth century A.C., which is said to be the golden period of Islamic learning�. �The Persian al-Raz�, admits George Sarton, �was not simply the greatest clinician of Islam and of the whole of the middle age; he was also a chemist and a physicist. He may be considered one of the forerunners of the later chemists of the Renaissance. Galenic in theory, he combined his immense learning and true Hippocratic wisdom�. Ibn S�n�, and R�z� form the two most brilliant luminaries on the firmament of Islamic medicine, Ibn S�n� surpassed the theoretical side and R�z� the clinical side. �Influence of R�z� and Ibn S�n� upon Western thought was equally great�, writes Cyrus Elgood in �The Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate�.

65. Mawl�n� Jal�l al-D�n R�m�_ R.A. (1207‑73)‑ He is one of the most eminent s�f�s, Islamic thinkers and poets. He came from a very learned and pious family and maintained these traditions throughout his life. His most famous book is the Mathnav�, which is known as �the Holy Qur��n in Persian language�. His other book is the �D�w�n� or �D�w�n-i-Shams Tabr�z�. He obtained education and s�f� guidance from his father, the renowned scholar Saiyyid Burh�n al-Din Mu�aqqiq and the world famous s�f�, Shams Tabr�z.

Mawl�n� R�m� lived at a time when the Muslim world was confronted with three major catastrophes. These were: (i) the Intellectual turmoil created by the unharnessed intellect produced by two important components of Greek philosophy, viz. Idealism or conceptualism and inferiority of Man, (ii) economic and moral turmoil created by the oppression of the masses by tyrant kings and aristocrats, and (iii) the political turmoil creacted by the destruction of Baghd�d and the socio-political structure of the Muslim world by the Mongol invasion. These events pushed the Muslim society into a state of frustration and depression which reduced the fervor of the dynamic characteristics of Islam and produced a defeatist outlook in the society.

Mawl�n� R�m� was pre-ordained by God to alleviate the damage done by this state of affairs. His ta�awwuf has two pillars. These are (i) adjudging intuition to be superior to Intellect for comprehension of the Dh�t of God, and (ii) restoration of Man to his high position of the vice-gerency of God on earth. Regarding the former Mawl�n� R�m� is one of the few early s�f�s and Islamic thinkers who established the superiority of Intuition, Love of God and �m�n over Intellect for comprehension of spiritual Realities and the Dhat of God. Regarding the latter he reinstated Man to the high status bestowed upon him by the Holy Qur��n but lost by him through acceptance of the Greek philosophy and acquiring the defeatist mentality described above. This approach of R�m� re-created in Muslims the spiritual strength which alone could rebuild the Islamic world on Islamic lines and bring it at par with it�s contemporaries.

�All�mah Iqb�l is one of the most ardent believers in and followers of R�m� and has accepted him as his spiritual preceptor. The Muslim world in �All�mah Iqb�l�s time also was facing problems similar to those of Mawl�n� R�m�s age. It had been thrown into intellectual turmoil bv the Western civilization, whose science and technology presented an apparently bright face and masked the Western society�s inner ugliness, resulting from its materialism, capitalism and secular nationalist imperialism, which permitted the West to indulge in hideous terrorism in and plunder of the defenseless humanity in the Eastern lands, conquered by the West. The Muslim world also suffered from the political disarray resulting from the defeat and disintegration of the �Uhm�niyah Khil�fah and its replacement by the secular nation states carved out by the West to suit its imperial interests. Thus, Mawl�n� R�m� and �All�mah Iqb�l faced similar problems and were similarly pre-ordained by God to retrieve the Muslim Ummah from the depressing effects of similar catastrophes. �All�mah Iqb�l offered solutions similar to those of Mawl�n� R�m�. Like Mawl�n� R�m� he also used poetry as a vehicle for conveying the concept of the Love of God and �m�n in Him, and as the medium for communicating spiritual visions and experiences to Muslims. Under inspiration from Mawl�n� R�m� �All�mah Iqb�l also made the Holy Qur��n the basis of his philosophy. He presented Man as the masterpiece of the Creation of God, and the immaculate personality of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. as the ideal for Man to follow by using the methods for developing his Khud�. He presented a detailed program for this in his famous book Asr�r-i-Khud� (The Secrets of the Self). He revived the controversy of Intuition and Intellect and established the superiority of the former over the latter for comprehension of the Dh�t of God and the Reality of the Universe as His Creation. He also emphasized that the basis of nationality in Islam is ideology and not geographical boundaries, race or color, which have led the West to its moral degeneration. Thus, Mawl�n� R�m� and �All�mah Iqb�l equally well reflect and focus the light of the Holy Qur��n for the guidance of Muslims in their respective ages to free themselves from their ordeal.

�All�mah Iqb�l has presented Mawl�n� R�m� as his preceptor in his allegory �J�v�d N�mah� (The Book of Eternity) and several other places, such as �B�l-i-Jibr�l�(Appendix III, No. 29, pp. 180-91).

66. Shaikh Mu�lih al-D�n Sa�d� Sh�r�z� (ca. 1184‑1291)‑ He is a matchless Persian prose writer and poet of Iran and is very well known in Ir�n, and Persian knowing circles everywhere, including India‑Pakistan‑Bangladesh. Out of his six treatises, Gulist�n (The Garden) and Bost�n (The Orchard) are his masterpieces, Bost�n is a jewel among mathnav�s. He was educated at the Ni�miyah University at Baghd�d after which he traveled widely throughout the Muslim world, including the Indian sub‑continent. In these travels he met all kinds of people and gained a first hand experience of life which is reflected in his works, especially Gulist�n. As a result of his education and experience of life he combined in him the rare qualities of a poet, a suf�, a jurist and a moralist. In habits he was contentment incarnate. His contentment was on Islamic lines and this made him a derv�sh. Simplicity of language is one of his characteristics, which has increased his popularity.

�All�mah Iqb�l has based several verses on the verses of Sa�d�. However, he does not have much respect for him as a preceptor. This is due to the clear difference in their ideologies. Sa�d� advises his readers to change with and adjust to the exigencies of the time. �All�mah Iqb�l gives much weight to the values of Islam and advises struggle for establishing those values instead of changing or modifying them to suite the times.

7. Mirz� Mu�ammad �Al�, ֫�ib Tabr�z� Isfah�n� (d. 1675)‑ He was born in Isfah�n but lived mostly in Tabr�z. He wanted to go to India but was stopped on his way by �afar Kh�n A�san, then Governor of Kabul. Later, when �afar Kh�n A�san moved to Haiderab�d Dakkan and then to Kashmir as Governor ֫�ib moved with him, but returned to Iran in his old age. Even there he remained under the patronage of �afar Kh�n Ah�an till the latter�s death in 1662.

֫�ib is considered to belong to the first rank of poets of Iran. His D�w�n has been published in Ir�n several times and several literary organizations are named after him. �All�mah Iqb�l also is an admirer of ֫�ib and has used his verses in his own poems, one of which is in Poem 131. �Ta�m�n Bar Shi�r-i-֫�ib� (Includes a Verse of ֫�ib).

68. S. Salm�n Ab� �Abd Allah F�ris� R.A. (d. 657)‑ He is a famous Companion of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. He was of Persian origin. Early in his life he left his home in search of the Truth. First he accepted Christianity, studied its literature deeply and persevered through all the hardships he had to encounter. He was caught by an Arab tribe and sold to a Jew. Later, the Holy Prophet S.A.W. purchased him and set him free. S Salm�n accepted Islam after the emigration of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. to Mad�nah Munawwarah. The love of the Holy Prophet for S. Salm�n is shown by the fact that he used to call him as part of his family. Throughout his life S. Salm�n remained a very eminent Companion of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. and is credited with the narration of several �ad�ths. He died in Madayan in 657.

69. Sir Saiyyid A�mad Kh�n (1817-98) -�Saiyyid� or �Sir Saiyyid� is the popular name of Sir Saiyyid A�mad Kh�n. He was a very eminent Muslim leader, educationist, social reformer, historian and literateure of the Indian sub-continent. He devoted his entire life to the social reform of the Indian Muslim society and removal of the feelings of defeatism and inferiority complex with reference to the West, created by the downfall and ultimately the final defeat of the Indian Muslims at the hands of the British up to and including the War of Indian Independence of 1857. He was no mere theorist but an ardent activist. Realizing the backwardness of the Indian Muslims in the field of Western education, especially science and technology he gave very high priority to the education of Muslims in these fields. For this purpose he founded several schools and the Muhamedan Anglo‑Oriental College, at Aligarh in 1877, which later progressed to the present day Muslim University, which was granted its charter in 1920. Being conscious of the importance of Islamic education for the Muslim youth he combined religious education with the Western learning at Aligarh to ensure that Muslims did not lose their self respect.

In the political field he tried to reconcile the Muslims with the British and use all their energies and resources in building up their economic, social, educational and ethical base from which they could ultimately regain their political power. His efforts bore fruit in that they resulted in bringing up the Indian Muslims to an intellectual level at which they could successfully compete with the Hindus and the British in all spheres of life and could make for themselves a place of respect. It is well known that the students, faculty and alumni of the Muslim University, Aligarh were in the fore front of the Pakistan movement right from 1935 when the Quaid-i- Azam, Mu�ammad Ali Jinnah started his efforts. An extract from his speeches is given below to show a sample of his aims and objects:

�I want to raise my nation to the sky which we see at night. When I look up at the sky at night I do not care for its part which looks frightfully blue and dark but want to see the stars twinkling in it, the stars which are lovingly attracting us towards them with their brightness, and through whom the dark sky also acquires its unique beauty. Gentlemen, do you think you can make your nation self-respecting and respectable before other nations without producing among them the people who would shine like stars?�

Edited Ab� al-Fa�l�s ���n-i-Akbar�� (The Constitution of Akbar) and Jah�ng�r�s Tuzuk-i-Jah�ng�r� (The Diary of Jah�ngi�)

In addition, he was editor of a journal for social reform of Muslims, called Tahdh�b al-Akhl�q and founded the Scientific Society. His articles have been collected and published in several volumes.

He felt the need for and succeeded in gathering round him a group of dedicated persons who gave the best of their lives in the service of the Indian Muslims and the cause of Islam. This group included Mawl�n� ��l�, Mawl�n� Shibl� Nu�m�n�, Naw�b Mu�sin al-Mulk, Chir�gh �Al�, and Professors Theodore Beck, Morrison, and Sir Thomas Arnold.

70. Ab� al-Majd�d Bin �dam �ak�m San�� (ca. 1080‑1150)‑ He is one of the very eminent s�fis and is a favorite s�f� of �All�mah Iqb�l. In his early life he was associated with the Court of Sul�n Ma�m�d of Ghazn� and used to write laudatory poems in praise of the Sul�an, his courtiers and successors. However, there was a sudden revolution in his life which happened miraculously on meeting a Godly person in Ghazn�. He abandoned attending the courts of kings and writing laudatory poems. Instead he changed the direction of his poetry towards ��rf�n and ta�awwuf. Throughout the rest of his life he used his poetic genius in explaining the marvels and mysteries of ta�awwuf. The quality of his new poetry gave a new color to Persian verse.

Shibl� Nu�m�n� thinks that �ak�m San�� was the founder of ethical poetry. He is also considered to be the next after Sul�an Ab� Sa��d Abu al‑Khair who served ta�awwuf with his poetry.

Both R�m� and �All�mah Iqb�l have shown great reverence for �akim San��. �All�mah Iqb�l�s reverence for �ak�m San�� is evidenced by the poems he wrote on his visit to Afghanistan which are included in his book Mus�fir (The Traveler). All these poems are worth reading but we refrain from reproducing them for brevity. Selected verses have been presented in the section �Visit to Afghanistan� in Chapter 2.

71. Yul Qul� Baig An�s� Sh�ml� (d. 1404)‑ He lived during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Jal�l al-D�n Akbar (1542-1605; reigned 1156-1605). He was a versatile person. Though he was only an accounts officer in the Mughal army, during the times of Mirz� �Abd al-Rah�m Kh�n-i-Kh�n�n and Akbar, he was an eminent poet also. This is shown by his elegy written by Naz�r� Nish�p�r�. �All�mah Iqb�l also had respect for him and has based his Poem 81 in this book on a verse of his.

72. �All�mah Shibl� Gnu�s�n� (1857‑1914)‑ He was one of the shining stars of the galaxy of geniuses of his time. He was not only literateur of excellence but was also a critic, historian, biographer and philosopher. He obtained education from the most learned scholar of his time, Mawl�n� Mu�ammad F�r�q Chiry�k�t�.

He was an associate of Sir Saiyyid A�mad Kh�n and Mawl�n� ��l� and served as Professor of Arabic at the Muhamedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh for a considerable time. Later, on account of his disagreement with Sir Saiyyid on the latter�s slant on Western education, he left Aligarh and went to his native city of ��amgarh and passed the rest of his life in literary pursuits which were oriented towards Islam�s service. This included the establishment and operation of D�r-al- Musannif�n (The Institute of Authors) which is still serving Islam in intellectual fields.

His greatest contribution is in the field of Urdu prose. The following list of publications shows the versatility and prolific nature of his genius:

Aurangzeb ��lamg�r (The Life of the Mughal Emperor Mu�y al-D�n Aurangzeb ��lamg�r)

�All�mah Shibl� was a herald of �All�mah Iqb�l in that, like the �All�mah he lamented the decline and fall of the Muslim world but at the same time gave a ray of hope to the Muslim world so as to reduce their frustration and to prepare them for the struggle that was facing them. In a way he is one of the strong pillars on which the edifice of Islam and Islamic literature stands.

73. S. Sulaim�n A.S (Bible�s Solomon) (ca. 986‑32 B.C.) � He is one of the prophets of Islam and is mentioned in the Holy Qur��n. He was the son of S. D��d A.S. (Bible�s David) and reigned in Palestine during the period ca. 972‑32 B.C. He had proverbial wisdom. His dominion included not only lands and their people but extended over wind and other powers of nature as well as over birds and animals (The Holy Qur��n 6:54; 21:79,81, 82; 27:15‑44; 34:12‑14; and 38: 30‑40). He is cited as an emblem of material as well as spiritual powers in Islamic literature.

74 �riq Ibn Ziy�d (ca. 690‑ca. 720)‑ By the end of the seventh century the Muslims had spread out into the East up to Persia and the West up to Morocco. This was achieved by a combination of the power of unshakable faith in the correctness of their mission of spreading the word of God far and wide and judicious and compassionate rule in the conquered lands. The conquest of Spain was also one such achievement. About the beginning of the eighth century appeared �riq Ibn Ziy�d who was a newly converted Berber slave and a lieutenant in the Muslim army under the command of M�s� Ibn Nu�air, who was the Muslim Viceroy of North Africa. While the countries of North Africa were prosperous and happy on all accounts under the Muslim rule the neighboring countries of Europe, particularly Spain were groaning under the tyrannies of their kings, feudal lords and the Roman Catholic Church. The people of Spain appealed to M�s� Ibn Nu�air for help to get freedom from the tyrannies of their Gothic king Roderick and the other sources mentioned above. After reconnaissance of the political and physical conditions of Spain and its southern coast M�s� Ibn Nu�air decided to grant their request. �ariq Ibn Ziy�d was the commander of this operation and landed on the southern coast of Spain at the place which got the name of Jabal al‑�riq (Mount of T�riq) at that time in commemoration of his successes in Spain and is still called Jibralter. The Muslim force consisted of 12,000 soldiers while the Roderick�s army was over 100,000. On landing at Jabal al‑�riq he ordered his boats to be burnt as a demonstration of his immutable resolve to obliterate all intentions of returning home and to conquer or perish in Spain. Roderick�s army was defeated and he died by drowning in the river. In the short period of a few years the whole of Spain fell to the Muslims. The Muslims ruled over Spain for over eight centuries, which was the period of proverbial success in the arts of administration, progress of science and learning, and prosperity of the people in all respects.

The historic decision of �riq to burn his boats in the face of his army�s request and advice to the contrary stands out as a landmark decision in history. In fact it lives till today in the English proverb of �burning the boats� for making a decision with no return. �All�mah Iqb�l was so much impressed by this heroic act that he immortalized it in the poem titled �Al- Mulk O lillah� (All Land is Allah�s Land):

(239) As �riq burnt his boats on reaching the coast of Andalus
His soldiers said �Your act in the wisdom�s eye is flawed

(240) Far from our land we are, how can we return there?
Destruction of means is not permitted by the Shar�ah

(241) Putting his hand on the sword he laughed and said
�Every land is our land as is it the land of our Allah�

75. S. �Umar F�r�q Ibn Kha��b R.A. (ca. 581‑644)‑ His achievements need volumes to describe them. This is only a humble effort to present them in outline, particularly with reference to the place he has in the thoughts of �All�mah Iqb�l.

He was one of the closest Companions of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. He was born at Makkah Mu�a��amah and belonged to a family whose profession was commerce. He accepted Islam in 608. Ever since then he remained the greatest asset of Islam. He fought side by side with the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) in all battles and demonstrated extreme bravery and military skill. His sincerity and Love for God, Islam and the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) is proverbial. His hatred for infidels and infidelity was demonstrated throughout his life, but most so at the Treaty of Hudaibiyah, which he considered to have been signed under duress. Acceding to something under duress was not acceptable in Islam.

He was a sincere adviser to S. Ab� Bakr al‑�idd�q (R.A.), the first Divinely guided Khal�fah. On the latter�s death he was elected Khal�fah. His Khil�fah was the period of the largest expansion of the Islamic State. The formidable Persian and Roman Empires, which were also the greatest enemies of Islam, were defeated and annihilated from existence in his time. This placed the whole of the present day Middle East and Egypt into the Islamic State in the miraculously short period of nine years from 634 to 643. S. �Umar�s greatness is shown by the following two events during this period:

1. When the news of victory came from the Ir�q front he gave the following speech to the Muslims: �Brothers in Islam. I am not your ruler who wants to enslave you. I am a servent of God and His people. I have been entrusted with the heavy responsibilities of administering the Khil�fah. It is my duty to make you comfortable in every way and it will be an evil day for me if I wish you to wait on me every now and then. I want to educate you not through my precepts but by my example.�

2. When the huge treasure and wealth from the Ir�q�s battle fields arrived in Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah and was heaped in the mosque he burst into tears. On being asked the reason for it he said, �This wealth was the cause of the downfall of the Persians and now it has come to us to bring our downfall�. Under his orders it was divided immediately and equally among all the Muslims�.

The Roman Empire was engaged in similar warfare with the Muslim armies in Syria. The Romans had mustered a formidable force and the Muslims at first felt concern to the extent that the Commander-in-Chief of the Muslim forces, S. �Ab� �Ubaidah ordered the return of the jiziyah collected from the non-Muslim population because he thought the Muslims would not be able to protect them for some time due to the pressing demands of the war with the Romans. This surprised the Christian and Jewish populations and at the same time won them over to the side of the Muslims. The battles were protracted and fierce after which city after city fell to the Muslims. The last resistance was offered by the Patriarch of Jerusalem who refused to surrender to any one except the Khal�fah himself. S.�Umar accepted this offer and went himself. This journey was without any pomp and pageantry with only one camel and one slave who rode the camel by turns. When the party reached Jerusalem it was the slave�s turn to ride, which he did, and S.�Umar led the camel. This scene so much influenced the Patriarch that he surrendered the keys of Jerusalem.

After conquering Syria the Muslim armies marched on to the remaining parts of the Persian Empire and conquered Azerbaij�n, Bost�n, Armenia, S�st�n, and Makr�n and reached Debul in Sind, India. Further advance into India was stopped because of the Roman threat from Egypt where their defeated armies had been assembled and reorganized. They were engaged in several battles under the leadership of Amr Ibn al- ��s, resulting in the final defeat of the Romans and the conquest of Egypt. At the same time a strong fleet was built by Muslims which engaged the remaining Roman armies which were still strong at sea. They were eventually annihilated in a short time.

This short period of nine years extended the Islamic State to a very vast area comprising Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Persia, Khuzist�n, Armenia, Azerbaij�n, Kirm�n, Khur�s�n, Makr�n and parts of Baluchistan and Sind. This military miracle could be achieved only with the strength of Faith in and Love for God infused by the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.), the excellent military strategies of S.�Umar, the treatment of the conquered people with justice tempered with human kindness. These established an empire whose remnants still survive after 1400 years in contrast with the empires of tyrant conquerors like Alexander, Chang�z Kh�n, Hal�k� Kh�n, the Roman and Persian Empires which disappeared after ephemeral existence. Credibility of the promises and treaties made by Muslims went a long way towards this achievement.

The democratic form of government enjoined by the Holy Qur��n and established by the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) was fine tuned and elaborated by S �Umar F�r�q. The legislature consisted of two legislative bodies. One was the general assembly which was consulted on all critical matters confronting the State and the other was a special body made up of persons of unquestionable integrity who were consulted on routine and urgent matters, including the appointments of State officials. The non-Muslim conquered people were included in these assemblies and were regularly consulted in matters affecting them. All actions of the Khal�fah and State officials were subject to public scrutiny and criticism. Judiciary was completely separated from administration. Material resources of all State officials were closely watched and unusual increases had to be explained. One important difference between the strictness of S.�Umar and that of the tyrant rulers was that the former was in the service of God and people and the latter for self aggrandizement. Punishments were codified for all civil and criminal offenses by S. ��mar according to the Shar�ah. Financial administration was established on sound grounds. Means were taken to improve agricultural production by fully adopting the technology then known in matters like irrigation, methods of cultivation etc. Ownership of land was changed from the feudal system of the Romans and Persians to the ownership of land by the tillers of the soil. Land revenue was fixed equitably with due regard to the interests of the State and the cultivator. He also organized the military on lines which can be considered as the fore runners of the present day organization, with division into the land army and the navy, cantonments, ranks, and regular as well as volunteer units. The Khal�fah kept personal vigil on the condition of the people and roamed about in cognito at night to ascertain what could be done to alleviate their hardships and improve their standard of living.

Thus, S.�Umar was a friend of the people in war and peace alike and proved true to his speech mentioned above in which he called himself the servant of God and the people. He is a true example of the people referred to in the Holy Qur��n 48:29 and by �All�mah Iqb�l in explanation of the above verse in his verse which says:

(242) Like the dew which cools the tulip�s hearts!
Like the storm which turns over the oceans� hearts

76. Saiyyid Mu�ammad Jam�l al‑D�n �Urf� Sh�r�z� (1555‑91)‑ He is a famous Persian poet of India. Though he was born and brought up at Sh�raz in Ir�n he moved to Lahore in India in 1586 on account of lack of appreciation by the Safav�d kings of Ir�n and jealousy of his contemporary poets, like Wa�sh� Baf�qu� and Mu�tashim K�sh�n� (d. 1588), who were famous in their own right and need not have been jealous of a new poet. In India he was patronized by the Mughal Emperor Jal�l al-D�n Mu�ammad Akbar (1542‑1605, reigned 1556‑1605), and his court poets. The prominent characteristics of �Urf�s thought are zeal and fervor as well as self respect, which are the very characters in �Allamah Iqbal's poetry. Hence, the �Allamah was very much influenced by the ��rf�'s poetry and often used his thought. Poem 145, "�Urf�" in this book is entirely in his praise and the end of the poem is based on a verse of �Urf�. The same verse has been used in Poem 145. "�ul�‑i‑Isl�m" (The Renaissance of Islam) also in B�ng‑i‑Dar�.

77. S. �Uthm�n Ibn �Aff�n R.A. (574‑656)‑ He is the third of the Divinely guided Khal�fahs of Islam and his Khil�fah lasted for 12 years from 644 to 656. He was given the epithet of honor �Dhunnurain ', as he had married two daughters of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) one after the other's death. He belonged to the Ban� Umayyah clan of the Quraish who were second only to Ban� ��shim in political importance. As a businessman he was famous for his integrity, honesty and piety. He was very generous in helping the Muslims and their cause in every way. He accompanied the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) to every battle except Badr at which time he stayed behind in Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah under instructions from the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) to look after his ailing wife Ruqayyah R.A.

The first six years of his Khilafah were marked with outstanding achievements in military as well intellectual fields. The revolts of the Persians in the east and the Romans in the west were soon suppressed and the enemy in both cases was pursued beyond the borders of the Islamic State, adding new territories to the State. The Islamic State was consolidated and measures were taken to build strong defenses against the remnants of the Romans. These included a strong navy to fight against them on the sea. On the intellectual level the Holy Qur'�n which lad been organized by the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) himself and written during the periods of the first two Khal�fahs was carefully compared with those who knew it by heart, corrected and copied in bulk for distribution throughout the State. Diacritics were added to facilitate harmonizing pronunciation and accent between the different Arab and non-Arab population of the Islamic State.

The last six years were a period of unrest which ultimately ended in the martyrdom of the Khal�fah. There were many reasons for this first sign of weakness in the Islamic society. The fast and decisive conquests of Islam and the comparative prosperity of the people in Islamic lands, compared with their counterparts in other countries , fanned the jealousy of its enemies, especially those who had been defeated. The converts found it hard to follow the Islamic injunctions on piety and integrity. This environment provided favorable ground for the machinations of one Ibn Sab� who was a converted Jew of Yemen, whose acceptance of Islam was with the nefarious purpose of undermining it from within. He started a campaign of disloyalty against the Khal�fah and made the right of S.�Al� to the same as the main issue. S.�Uthm�n, due to his extreme piety and softness of heart, refused to fight against the insurgents to avoid shedding Muslim blood in internecine warfare. This meekness was taken as weakness by the insurgents who became bold and ultimately laid a siege of the Khal�fah's house. Loyal Muslims, including S. �asan and S. �usain (R.A), posted themselves on guard duty voluntarily. The Khal�fah conceded one demand of the rebels, viz. appointment of S. Mu�ammad Ibn Ab� Bakr to the governorship of Egypt for which he gave them the written order. On way to Cairo they intercepted an apparent emissary of the Khal�fah who was carrying a forged letter from him instructing the Governor of Egypt to kill S. Mu�ammad Ibn Ab� Bakr. This infuriated the insurgents and they returned to Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah and martyred the pious Khal�fah. This happened to be the time of the pilgrimage and many of the residents of Mad�nah-i-Munawwarah had gone to Makkah Mu�a��amah for pilgrimage thus weakening the defense of the Khal�fah. Later events produced evidence that either one or both letters were forged, which must have been done with the advice of Ibn Sab�.

(Source: No. 5, pp. 34‑39)

78. S. Uwais_Qaran� R.A.‑ Though he was a contemporary of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) and had accepted Islam he could not achieve his life-long ambition and longing of being a Companion of him. This was so because he could not leave his home town of Qaran in Najd due to the blindness of his old mother. The Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) had knowledge of him and used to say that he felt breeze of God's Beneficence from Yemen. The Holy Prophet's (S.A.W.) love for S. Uwais is shown by the fact that he made him the inheritor of his shirt. S. �Umar R.A. and S.�Al� R.A. went to meet him in Qaran after the death of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). Later S. Uwais moved to K�fah and attained martyrdom in the battle of Siff�n where he was in the camp of S.�Al� R.A. He is one of the most eminent s�f�s, often placed second to S. �Al� R.A. He was fully absorbed in the Love of God and the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.), but his longing to see the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) remained unfulfilled as alluded to by �All�mah Iqb�l in Poem 37. �Bil�l� in �B�ng-i-Dar��. �All�mah Iqb�l has referred to him in many places in his works out of which two occur in �B�ng-i-Dar��, viz. Poems 37. �Bil�l� and 88. �Shakwah� (The Complaint).

(Source: No. 49, pp. 68-73)

79. Sh�h Wal� Allah of Delhi (1703‑62) ‑ He is one of the greatest Muslim thinkers of the Indian sub-continent. He was born at Delhi and lived there most of his life. After obtaining early education from his learned father, Sh�h Abd al-Ra��m, he started teaching at the Madrassa Rah�miyah of Delhi where his father used to teach. After twelve years he went to Makkah‑i‑Mu�a��amah and Mad�nah‑i‑Munawwarah where he completed his religious education under several teachers, of whom he had the greatest reverence for Shaikh Ab� �hir Ibn Ibr�h�m of Mad�nah.

He returned to Delhi in July 1732 and started organizing Islamic education and Islamic society there in fulfillment of his dream at Mad�nah in which the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) had instructed him to do so. Both these tasks were very difficult in the conditions prevailing then under which the Muslim society and government had both deteriorated and degenerated.

He set upon the task of:

(1) purifying Islam of all un‑Islamic thoughts and practices;

(2) imparting Islamic education to the maximum number of people;

(3) preparing a body of men who would spread his message to the Muslims of India;

(4) reforming Muslim society;

(5) compensating for the military and political weaknesses of the Mughal Court.

He has the following achievements to his credit in pursuing the above goals:

He made ever-lasting contribution to Islamic knowledge and in the short period of 30 years produced more than 50 books in Arabic and Persian, some of which are still unsurpassed in their quality. He codified the vast amount of Islamic literature under separate heads. His publications can be classified under the following six categories;

1. The Holy Qur��n and its translation into Persian which was the literary language of the sub-continent then.

2. �ad�th literature in which he produced Arabic and Persian Commentaries of Muwa��, the collection of a�d�th compiled by Im�m M�lik. He also wrote several other books in this field and trained many Indian traditionists.

3. Fiqh literature which includes his famous book �Al-Inūf f� Bay�n-i-Asb�b-al-Ikhtil�f�, which is a brief but very informative history of fiqh over the previous five centuries.

4. Islamic philosophy and �Ilm al-Kal�m in which his outstanding book ��ujjat-Ullah-al-B�lighah� is very famous and deals with such aspects of Islam as are common among all Muslim sects and countries.

5. Ijtih�d-O-Taql�d. The essence of his views on this subject is that it is obligatory for a Muslim to adhere to one of the four recognized schools of Fiqh. A layman should rigidly follow his own Im�m but a person well versed in Fiqh can exercise ijtih�d which should be in conformity with the practice of the Holy Prophet (S A.W.).

6. Sh�ah-Sunn� Problem, in which he simplified the issue and tried to remove misunderstandings and misinformations of each about the other.

His books are characterized by the practical demonstration of his theory of justice, fairness and balance in writing. In economics and social sciences his views are very much advanced for his age, and he can be considered as the precursor of Karl Marx. During his time heated controversy existed between the adherents of heterodoxy of the time of Akbar and Dar� Shikoh and orthodox Puritanism of the time of Aurangzeb. In his works Sh�h Wal� Allah reconciled the two and showed the mean path avoiding the extremes of both and incorporating their virtues. He studied s�fism critically especially the works of Mu�y al-D�n Ibn al-�Arab� and Ibn Taymiyah. In his own writings he advised reform of s�fism by ridding it of the prevalent malpractices. He justified s�fism but condemned its current practices and pleaded for reform. He not only tried to reconcile s�fism with orthodox fiqh but also tried to reconcile the differences between the different s�f� orders.

He advocated far reaching reforms in the social and economic structure of the Muslim society and elimination of social customs which had come into the Muslim society from Hindus. These were mostly extravagance and waste of money in marriages and on festive occasions. He advocated re-marriage of widows and re-distribution of wealth on Islamic lines. In this respect he is called the fore runner of Karl Marx. He was very critical of the Mughal Court and the aristocracy for their indulgence in luxuries and neglect of their duty towards the State and the people. He advocated intellectual revolution as a pre‑requisite to political change rather than a sanguine revolution bringing about political change, which would introduce social and economic reforms.

Sh�h Wal� Allah was also a very strong political activist of the time. He wrote letters of warning and advice to the nobles of the Mughal Court, including Naj�b al-Dawlah, the Prime Minister and Ni�m al-Mulk of �aider�b�d Dakkan for political reform, unity of the Muslim Ummah and united front to the growing menace of the Marhatah power which was threatening the Muslim governments and society. In frustration he wrote his memorable letter to A�mad Sh�h �Abd�l�, the Afghan leader inviting him to attack India and engage the Marhatahs in war in view of the latter's growing menace for Muslims and the ineptness of Muslim rulers of India to deal with it. Only A�mad Sh�h Abd�l� followed his advice and fought the memorable Third Battle of P�n�pat, near Delhi in 1761 in which the Marhatahs were dealt a fatal blow from which they never recovered and the Muslim India was freed from their danger. His exemplary life is a lesson to the Muslim religious scholars and leaders of all times and should be an example of behavior to them.

The movement of Islamic revival in India did not die with Shah Wal� Allah but has continued ever since through his books, followers and the religious institutions established by him and his followers.

(Source: No. 5, pp. 297‑303)

80. S. Y�suf A.S. (Joseph of the Old Testament) ‑ He was one of the prophets of Islam. He was the son of S. Y�aq�b A.S. and had eleven brothers. The brothers were very jealous of him because of his handsome features and keen intelligence which made him very dear to the father. They plotted to kill him and threw him in a well in the wilderness. He was retrieved alive by a passing caravan who sold him in Egypt for a very low price. During the early part of his sojourn in Egypt he was a slave in the house of some very high court official whose name or designation is not given in the Holy Qur��n. He successfully resisted the temptation created by the official�s wife, whose name also is not given. However, he was still imprisoned and had to remain there for several years. Ultimately he became a high official in Egypt under the Pharoah. The brothers and the father also came to and settled in Egypt. The whole story is related in the Holy Qur'�n S�rah 12. In Islamic literature he stands for strength of character, physical and spiritual beauty, perseverance and forgiveness.

81. Zal�kh� or Zulaikh�‑ She was the lady who tried to entice S. Y�suf A.S. during the period of his slavery with the high official of the Pharoah's court. The Holy Qur'�n does not give her name or the name of her husband who is described only as the ��Az�z� (the exalted in rank) (12:30). Traditionally, she is known as Zal�kh�h or Zulaikh�h in Muslim literature.

82. Ab� al- Q�sim Ma�m�d Zamakhshar� Khw�rizm� (d. 1144)‑ He was a great Muslim scholar. He is the author of the famous exegesis of the Holy Qur��n known as �Al‑Kashsh�f� (The One Which Unveils). This commentary is very good in the explanation of words and idioms. He has adopted a rational and ethical view of the subject matter of the Holy Qur��n. Many later exegeses are based on this book. �All�mah Iqb�l has referred to him in the following verse:

(243) As long as the Qur��n is not revealed to your heart
Razi and the author of al-Kashshaf will unravel it�s mysteries not

(Appendix III, No. 29)